Published online before print July 31, 2008, doi: 10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.171363
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© 2008 American Heart Association, Inc.
Integrative Physiology/Experimental Medicine |
Niacin Increases HDL by Reducing Hepatic Expression and Plasma Levels of Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein in APOE*3Leiden.CETP Mice
From the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research-Quality of Life (J.W.A.v.d.H., L.M.H., H.M.G.P.), Gaubius Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands; and the Departments of Cardiology (J.W.A.v.d.H., L.M.H., J.W.J.) and General Internal Medicine, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases (W.d.H., J.F.P.B., L.M.H., P.C.N.R.), Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands.
Correspondence to José van der Hoorn, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research-Quality of Life, Gaubius Laboratory, P.O. Box 2215, 2301 CE Leiden, The Netherlands. E-mail jose.vanderhoorn{at}tno.nl
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Abstract |
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Objective— Niacin potently decreases plasma triglycerides and LDL-cholesterol. In addition, niacin is the most potent HDL-cholesterol–increasing drug used in the clinic. In the present study, we aimed at elucidation of the mechanism underlying its HDL-raising effect.
Methods and Results— In APOE*3Leiden transgenic mice expressing the human CETP transgene, niacin dose-dependently decreased plasma triglycerides (up to –77%, P<0.001) and total cholesterol (up to -66%, P<0.001). Concomitantly, niacin dose-dependently increased HDL-cholesterol (up to +87%, P<0.001), plasma apoAI (up to +72%, P<0.001), as well as the HDL particle size. In contrast, in APOE*3Leiden mice, not expressing CETP, niacin also decreased total cholesterol and triglycerides but did not increase HDL-cholesterol. In fact, in APOE*3Leiden.CETP mice, niacin dose-dependently decreased the hepatic expression of CETP (up to –88%; P<0.01) as well as plasma CETP mass (up to –45%, P<0.001) and CETP activity (up to –52%, P<0.001). Additionally, niacin dose-dependently decreased the clearance of apoAI from plasma and reduced the uptake of apoAI by the kidneys (up to –90%, P<0.01).
Conclusion— Niacin markedly increases HDL-cholesterol in APOE*3Leiden.CETP mice by reducing CETP activity, as related to lower hepatic CETP expression and a reduced plasma (V)LDL pool, and increases HDL-apoAI by decreasing the clearance of apoAI from plasma.
To elucidate the mechanism underlying the HDL-raising effect of niacin, APOE*3Leiden.CETP mice received increasing doses of niacin. Niacin markedly increased HDL-cholesterol by reducing the CETP-dependent transfer of cholesterol from HDL to (V)LDL, as related to a reduced hepatic CETP expression and plasma (V)LDL pool, and by decreasing the apoAI clearance.
Key Words: APOE*3Leiden.CETP transgenic mice • CETP • HDL-cholesterol • hyperlipidemia • niacin
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Introduction |
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Dyslipidemia is an important risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although lowering of LDL-cholesterol (C) by eg, statins reduces CVD risk by approximately 30%, substantial residual cardiovascular risk remains, even with very aggressive reductions in levels of LDL-C.1–3 Because of clinical studies, which have shown that HDL-C, independently of LDL-C, is inversely correlated with the risk of CVD,4,5 attention has shifted toward strategies for targeting HDL composition as adjunctive therapy to prevent and treat CVD. Current strategies to mildly increase HDL-C levels include aggressive overall lifestyle modification (ie, exercise, diet, weight loss, and smoking cessation), and modest increases in HDL-C levels are achieved with statins6 and fibrates (5% to 10%).7
See accompanying article on page 1892
Niacin (nicotinic acid, vitamin B3) has been described to exhibit lipid-modifying capacities already since the 1950s. Since then various (clinical) studies have shown the beneficial effects of niacin on plasma lipid levels. Treatment with niacin alone was associated with a 27% reduction in nonfatal myocardial infarction and it reduced all cause mortality by 11%.8,9 In combination with colestipol (FATS trial) or simvastatin (HATS trial), niacin reduced cardiac events by as much as 80% to 90%.10,11 These potent atherogenic properties of niacin are thought to be attributable to its marked HDL-elevating effect (+20% to +30%), besides it potent effect on reducing plasma TG (–40% to –50%) and LDL-C (–20%).7,12 In fact, niacin is currently the most effective therapy for elevating HDL-C.
The mechanism underlying the ability of niacin to reduce the plasma (V)LDL level has been well studied. By selective binding to GPR109A on adipocytes, niacin suppresses hormone sensitive triglyceride lipase (HSL) activity, resulting in a decreased release of free fatty acids (FFA) from adipose tissue and decreased plasma FFA levels.13 The resulting reduced supply of FFA toward the liver is believed to bring about a decreased hepatic VLDL-TG production, resulting in reduced VLDL-TG and (V)LDL-C levels.13,14 In contrast, the mechanism underlying the HDL-C raising effect of niacin has not been elucidated as yet. This is probably related to the lack of suitable animal models that respond in a human-like manner to HDL-raising drug interventions. In wild-type mice and apoE-knockout mice (the classical animal model for hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis), rats, and dogs, niacin only transiently reduced plasma levels of TG but failed to failed to raise HDL-C.15,16 An HDL-C-elevating effect of niacin has been reported in rabbits, but with 30% ethanol as dosing vehicle and only after 12 weeks of treatment.17
Therefore, the aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanism underlying the HDL-C raising effect of niacin. To this end, we used our recently developed APOE*3Leiden (E3L).CETP transgenic mouse model. We have previously demonstrated that E3L mice have a human-like lipoprotein profile in which the elevated plasma cholesterol and TG levels are mainly confined to the (V)LDL-sized lipoprotein fractions.18,19 These mice develop atherosclerosis on dietary cholesterol feeding and respond in a human-like manner to drugs used in the treatment of CVD (eg, statins, fibrates, cholesterol uptake inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and angiotensin II receptor antagonists20–23), but they did not yet respond to HDL-modulating interventions. By cross-breeding E3L mice with mice expressing human CETP under control of its natural flanking regions, E3L.CETP were obtained24 that respond to the HDL-raising effects of fenofibrate,25 atorvastatin,26 and torcetrapib.27 We now fed these mice a Western-type diet without or with increasing doses of niacin to reveal the mechanism underlying its HDL-C raising effect.
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Methods |
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Animals
Hemizygous human CETP transgenic (CETP) mice28 were crossbred with E3L mice.18 At the age of 12 weeks, female E3L and E3L.CETP mice were fed a semisynthetic cholesterol-rich diet for 3 weeks to obtain similar total cholesterol levels in both strains (about 12 to 14 mmol/L). After matching mice (n=8 per group) received a Western-type diet without or with 0.03% (
36 mg/kg/d), 0.1% (118 mg/kg/d), 0.3% (360 mg/kg/d), or 1% (1180 mg/kg/d) niacin (Sigma) for at least 3 weeks. These doses correspond well to the doses used in humans, if the 10-times faster metabolism of mice as compared to humans is taken into account. The institutional Ethical Committee on Animal Care and Experimentation has approved all experiments. For the full descriptions of the used methods, please see the supplemental materials (available online at http://atvb.ahajournals.org).
Statistical Analysis
All data are presented as means±SD unless indicated otherwise. Data were analyzed parametrically by 1-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett to correct for multiple testing. Probability values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. SPSS 14.0 was used for statistical analysis.
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Results |
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Niacin Decreases Plasma Lipids in Both E3L and E3L.CETP Mice, but Increases HDL Only in E3L.CETP Mice
No adverse clinical signs were observed with increasing dosages of niacin as indicated by absence of differences in weight gain and plasma ALT levels between treatment groups and the control. Treatment of E3L mice with niacin (118 mg/kg/d) caused a sustained reduction in plasma TG by –26% (1.4±0.6 mmol/L versus 1.9±0.6 mmol/L; P<0.05) and in plasma TC by –35% (9.2±3.4 mmol/L versus 14.2±4.5 mmol/L; P<0.05). Lipoprotein fractionation by fast protein liquid (FPLC) showed that the reduction in cholesterol was confined to the apoB-containing lipoproteins (V)LDL, whereas HDL-C was not affected (Figure 1A). An equal dose of niacin even more potently reduced plasma TG (–57%, P<0.05) and TC (–44%, P<0.01) in E3L.CETP mice. As in E3L mice, the TC-decreasing effect of niacin in E3L.CETP mice was caused by a reduction of (V)LDL-C. However, whereas niacin did not affect HDL levels in E3L mice, it increased HDL-C in E3L.CETP mice (Figure 1B). In E3L.CETP mice, the effects of niacin on plasma TG and TC levels were dose-dependent as shown in Figure 2. At the highest dose of 1180 mg/kg/d, niacin reduced TG levels by –77% (P<0.001; Figure 2A) and TC levels by –66% (P<0.001; Figure 2B).
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The HDL-Increasing Effect of Niacin in E3L.CETP Mice Is Dose-Dependent
To investigate whether the HDL-increasing effect of niacin in E3L.CETP mice was also dose-dependent, we determined HDL-C concentrations in whole plasma after precipitation of apoB-containing lipoproteins by heparin/MnCl2. Indeed, niacin appeared to decrease (V)LDL-C levels up to –79% (P<0.001; Figure 3A), and to increase HDL-C up to +87% (P<0.001; Figure 3B), both in a dose-dependent fashion. We next evaluated whether niacin also affects apoAI, the main apolipoprotein constituent of HDL. Indeed, niacin dose-dependently increased apoAI up to +72% (P<0.001; Figure 3C). Whereas niacin thus increases both HDL-C and apoAI, the effects on HDL-C at the various doses are somewhat more pronounced than on apoAI, suggesting that niacin increases the lipidation of apoAI. This was reflected by a modest increase of the HDL particle size as determined by native PAGE (supplemental Figure I). Further analyses of the pooled HDL fractions showed a decrease in triglycerides (–45%) and an increase in cholesteryl ester (+56%) and phospholipids (+66%; data not shown). Niacin did not seem to affect the hepatic synthesis or clearance of HDL, at least judged from unchanged hepatic mRNA expression of genes involved in HDL synthesis (apoa1, abca1) or clearance (sr-b1; data not shown). Hepatic pltp mRNA expression was slightly increased on niacin treatment (data not shown). In plasma niacin did decrease the HL activity, albeit that the effect was not dose-dependent (maximal reduction of –47% at 118 mg/kg/d; P<0.05).
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Niacin Increases the Residence Time of ApoAI in Plasma
To evaluate whether the dose-dependently increased plasma apoAI level as induced by niacin treatment was caused by decreased clearance of apoAI from plasma, we determined the effect of niacin on the plasma kinetics of intravenously injected 125I-apoAI-labeled HDL (Figure 4). Indeed, niacin dose-dependently increased the residence of 125I-apoAI in plasma (Figure 4A). From the mono-exponential decay curves it was calculated that the plasma half-life of 125I-apoAI (3.5±0.1 hour) was increased by niacin at 118 mg/kg/d (5.5±1.3 hour; P<0.01) and 1180 mg/kg/d (6.6±1.3 hour; P<0.01). This was accompanied by a dose-dependent reduction in the uptake of 125I-activity by the liver (up to –50%; P<0.05) and the kidneys (up to –90%; P<0.01; Figure 4B). For comparison, the uptake of [3H]cholesteryl oleoyl ether-labeled HDL by the liver was much larger (approx. 40% of dose/g wet weight), whereas the uptake by the kidneys was undetectable (data not shown).
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Niacin Reduces the Hepatic Lipid Content
The effects of niacin on plasma lipid metabolism in E3L.CETP mice are consistent with a niacin-induced reduction in CETP activity. Because CETP expression is regulated by the hepatic cholesterol content,28 we first examined effects of niacin on liver lipids (Figure 5A). Niacin decreased the hepatic TG content (–38%, P<0.05). This is consistent with the inhibitory effects of niacin on HSL in adipose tissue,13 thereby reducing the trafficking of FFA to the liver for TG synthesis. Niacin also decreased the hepatic TC content (–21%, P<0.01), which was mainly attributed to a reduction in hepatic cholesteryl esters (–22%, P<0.05). This effect was in line with a compensatory increase in hepatic Hmgcoared mRNA expression (+232%, P<0.05; not shown).
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Niacin Decreases Hepatic CETP mRNA Expression and Plasma CETP Levels
The decrease in hepatic cholesterol was indeed accompanied by a dose-dependent reduction in hepatic CETP mRNA up to –88% (P<0.01) at 1180 mg/kg/d (Figure 5B). To evaluate whether the niacin-induced decreased hepatic CETP mRNA expression was reflected by reduced CETP levels in plasma, we determined both CETP mass (Figure 6A) and activity (Figure 6B). Indeed, niacin dose-dependently decreased plasma CETP mass and CETP activity to a similar extent (up to –45% and –52%; P<0.001).
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Niacin Does Not Affect Biliary and Fecal Cholesterol Output
To evaluate the consequences of the niacin-induced alterations in lipid metabolism on lipid excretion into bile and feces, we determined bile flow, biliary lipids, and sterols in stool. Niacin did not affect bile flow or the bile composition (cholesterol, phospholipids, and bile acids). The highest dose of niacin (1180 mg/kg/d) did affect the composition of the fecal sterols to some extent, as reflected by a slight nonsignificant increase in neutral sterols and a decrease in bile acids (–22%; P<0.05). However, like the dietary input, the total fecal sterol output was not affected by niacin (supplemental Table I).
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Discussion |
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In this study, we investigated the mechanism(s) underlying the HDL-raising effect of niacin. We demonstrated that CETP plays a crucial role in the niacin-induced increase in plasma HDL-C and apoAI levels in E3L.CETP mice. Niacin reduced CETP dependent transfer of cholesterol from HDL to (V)LDL as related to lower hepatic CETP expression and a reduced plasma (V)LDL pool. This resulted in an increased lipidation of apoAI, as reflected by an increased HDL particle size, and a reduced uptake of apoAI by the kidneys.
We previously showed that E3L mice are highly susceptible to dietary interventions with respect to modulating plasma lipid levels and that these mice show a human-like response to drug interventions aimed at treatment of CVD (eg, statins, fibrates, cholesterol uptake inhibitors, calcium channel blockers and angiotensin II receptor antagonists20–23) with respect to alterations in the lipoprotein profile and/or atherosclerosis development. This is in sheer contrast with wild-type C57Bl/6 mice and conventional hyperlipidemic mice, such as apoE-deficient or LDL receptor–deficient mice, which show either an adverse response or no response to such interventions.29 In particular, administration of niacin to wild-type mice or apoE-deficient mice did show a transient decrease in plasma TG and FFA levels, but failed to increase plasma HDL-C in these mice.13,16 Likewise, we now showed that niacin lowered TG and cholesterol within apoB-containing lipoproteins in E3L mice but did not affect HDL-C levels.
Recently, we showed that introduction of the human CETP gene in E3L mice results in a mouse model which also shows a human-like response with regard to raising HDL-C after treatment with fenofibrate,25 atorvastatin,26 and torcetrapib.27 Because the introduction of CETP permits cross-talk between (V)LDL and HDL metabolism via the exchange of neutral lipids, we reasoned that the E3L.CETP mouse would also be an excellent mouse model to study the effects of niacin on HDL metabolism.
First, we observed that niacin dose-dependently reduced VLDL-TG and (V)LDL-C levels. The primary action of niacin is inhibition of HSL activity in adipose tissue after binding to the GPR109A receptor that is selectively expressed by adipocytes. This results in a decreased liberation of FFA from adipose tissue, and a decreased flux of albumin-bound FA to the liver, which is required for substrate-driven hepatic TG synthesis and VLDL production.13 As a consequence we thus observed a concentration-dependent drop in VLDL-TG and (V)LDL-C levels. In addition, we observed that niacin reduced the hepatic cholesterol content. This may be caused by reduced input of cholesterol from plasma into the liver, because plasma (V)LDL-C concentrations are reduced and cholesterol-enriched HDL is formed from which cholesteryl esters are presumably not being delivered efficiently to the liver. The decreased hepatic cholesterol content cannot be explained by differences in biliary sterol output, because the excretion of bile acids and cholesterol remained unchanged. Alternatively, niacin may reduce the endogenous hepatic synthesis of cholesterol.
Second, we showed that niacin dose-dependently raised HDL-C levels in E3L.CETP mice, but not in E3L mice, as paralleled by a less pronounced raise in apoAI. The presence of CETP thus plays a crucial role in the HDL-raising effect of niacin, and we reasoned that niacin may dose-dependently inhibit CETP activity. It is well-known that VLDL-TG is a driving force for CETP activity, and the relative proportions of VLDL and HDL have been shown to play a determinant role in CETP activity. It has been demonstrated that the capacity of apoB-containing lipoproteins to accept CE from HDL is closely correlated with the relative TG content of the lipoprotein acceptor particles.30–33 By decreasing VLDL levels, niacin may thus reduce CETP activity simply by decreasing the availability of VLDL-TG as substrate for CETP.
Our data corroborate recent observations from Hernandez et al15,34 who showed that niacin increased HDL-C levels in CETP mice and APOB.CETP mice, but not their CETP-deficient wild-type littermates. In fact, they speculated the reduced VLDL levels to be the main mechanism underlying the HDL-raising effect of niacin. However, we observed that niacin not only reduced plasma CETP activity but also dose-dependently reduced plasma CETP mass to a similar extent, suggesting that niacin reduces the synthesis of CETP leading to less CETP protein being released in plasma as reflected by similar reductions in CETP mass and activity. Indeed, niacin dose-dependently reduced hepatic CETP mRNA expression. It has been reported that hepatic cholesterol determines the hepatic CETP mRNA expression in CETP transgenic mice,28 presumably via an LXR responsive element in the CETP promoter.35 Therefore, it is likely that niacin decreases the hepatic CETP mRNA expression as a result of the observed decreased cholesterol content of the liver on niacin treatment.
Besides increasing HDL-C, niacin also dose-dependently increased plasma apoAI levels. Niacin has been shown to inhibit the uptake of HDL-apoAI (but not HDL-CE) by cultured hepatocytes,36 which we now confirmed in vivo. This may partly contribute to the increased apoAI levels. Such a potential effect of niacin should be independent of GPR109A, because expression of this receptor has not been detected in hepatocytes.13,37,38 Together with our observations that hepatic mRNA expression of genes involved in HDL synthesis (apoa1, acba1) and clearance (sr-b1) were not affected by niacin, and an increase of PLTP would rather lead to a decrease in HDL-C levels,30,39 it is most likely that the raise in apoAI is explained directly by the niacin-induced decreased CETP activity, which prevents cholesteryl ester transfer from HDL to (V)LDL. This leads to increased lipidation of apoAI, resulting in larger and cholesteryl ester-enriched HDL particles, and thus decreased glomerular filtration and excretion of lipid-poor apoAI via the cubulin/megalin receptor complex.40 Indeed, we demonstrated a clear dose-dependent reduction in the uptake of 125I-apoAI by the kidney.
Based on our collective data, we thus propose the following mechanism by which niacin reduces TG and (V)LDL-C and concomitantly raises HDL-C, as summarized in supplemental Figure II. By inhibiting HSL in adipose tissue on binding of the niacin receptor GPR109A, niacin decreases TG lipolysis and thereby the supply of FFA to the liver, required for lipid synthesis. The consequently reduced hepatic lipid content results in a lower VLDL production and thus lower (V)LDL levels. In addition, reduction in hepatic cholesterol results in reduced hepatic expression of CETP, as well as diminished release of CETP into the plasma. Additionally, HL activity is reduced which may contribute to reduced remodeling of HDL in plasma, resulting in decreased clearance of HDL. The HDL particles become CE enriched, and less lipid-poor apoAI is cleared by the kidney. Niacin thus increases HDL-C and apoAI levels by (1) reducing levels of (V)LDL, the acceptor of CETP-mediated HDL-CE transfer, (2) decreasing CETP expression, (3) decreasing HL activity, and (4) decreasing the clearance of apoAI.
As concluded from many clinical trials using statins, lowering LDL-C alone is no longer regarded to be sufficient to treat CVD. Therefore, comprehensive lipid management, in which raising HDL-C is an important target, is becoming a new standard.4,7 Niacin (at dosages of 2 to 4 g/d) is unsurpassed in raising HDL-C. We show that niacin (in a clinically relevant range if we take into account the 5- to 10-times faster metabolism of mice) significantly improves the plasma lipid levels in E3L.CETP mice, eg, reduces TG and (V)LDL-C and increases HDL-C, albeit that total fecal sterol output is unaffected. Whether this will lead to improved HDL function and HDL-related reductions in CVD in the clinic still remains to be investigated.
Niacin has not been a very successful drug thus far because of its side-effect: severe flushing. Niacin is nowadays produced as an extended release (ER) compound, which enhances the tolerability. Clinical trails AIM-HIGH41 and ARBITER-6 (HALTS)42 evaluating the secondary prevention of CVD by ER niacin treatment are currently running. Posthoc analysis of a subgroup of ARBITER-2, a randomized placebo-controlled trial, showed increases in HDL-C on daily intake of ER niacin (+20%), which were related to reduced progression of carotid intima-media thickness in the setting of both normal glycemic status and diabetes mellitus.43,44 Because the flushing effects of niacin appeared to be prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) receptor–mediated,45 a combination therapy is currently being evaluated combining ER niacin and PGD2 receptor antagonist laropiprant, which is better tolerated than ER niacin alone.46 Currently one trial evaluating effects of this combination drug on hard clinical end points such as myocardial infarction, stroke, or revascularization (HPS2-THRIVE) is underway.
In conclusion, our results show that niacin increases HDL-C by reducing the hepatic CETP expression and plasma CETP protein and CE transfer activity in E3L.CETP mice. Therefore, we postulate that reduction of CETP expression contributes to the increase in HDL that is found in human subjects treated with niacin, which should be subject of further investigation.
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Acknowledgments |
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We thank M.E.A. Bekkers, R. van den Hoogen, A. van Nieuwkoop, E.H. Offerman, and M. Voskuilen for their technical assistance.
Sources of Funding
This work was supported by the Leiden University Medical Center (Gisela Thier Fellowship to P.C.N.R.), the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant 908-02-097 and NWO VIDI grant 917.36.351 to P.C.N.R.; NWO grant 903-39-291 to L.M.H.), the Netherlands Heart Foundation (NHS grant 2003B136 to P.C.N.R.), and the Center for Medical Systems Biology (project 115 to L.M.H.). J.W.J. is an established clinical investigator of the Netherlands Heart Foundation (2001 D032).
Disclosures
None.
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Footnotes |
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Original received November 16, 2007; final version accepted July 23, 2008.
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