Published online before print March 2, 2006, doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000215951.36219.a4
© 2006 American Heart Association, Inc.
Vascular Biology |
Endothelial Dysfunction and Low-Grade Inflammation Explain Much of the Excess Cardiovascular Mortality in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes
The Hoorn Study
From the Department of Internal Medicine, Bethesda General Hospital, Hoogeveen, the Netherlands (J.d.J., A.K); the Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine (J.M.D., P.J.K., G.N., R.J.H., L.M.B., C.D.A.S.), VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; and the Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Maastricht, The Netherlands (C.D.A.S.).
Correspondence to Coen D.A. Stehouwer, MD, Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, University Hospital Maastricht, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands. E-mail csteh{at}sint.azm.nl
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Abstract |
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Objective— The mechanisms responsible for the increased cardiovascular disease risk that accompanies type 2 diabetes (T2D) remain poorly understood. It is commonly held that endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation can explain, at least in part, why deteriorating glucose tolerance is associated with cardiovascular disease. However, there is no direct evidence for this contention.
Methods and Results— In this population-based study (n=631), T2D was cross-sectionally associated with both endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation, whereas impaired glucose metabolism (IGM) was associated only with low-grade inflammation. These findings were independent of other risk factors that accompany T2D or IGM. During a follow-up of 11.7 years (median; range 0.5 to 13.2 years), low-grade inflammation was associated with a greater risk of cardiovascular mortality (hazard ratio, 1.43 [95% CI, 1.17 to 1.77] per 1 SD difference). For endothelial dysfunction, the association with cardiovascular mortality was stronger in diabetic (hazard ratio, 1.87 [95% CI, 1.43 to 2.45]) than in nondiabetic individuals (hazard ratio, 1.23 [95% CI, 0.86 to 1.75]; P interaction=0.06). Finally, T2D-associated endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation explained 
43% of the increase in cardiovascular mortality risk conferred by T2D.
Conclusions— These data emphasize the necessity of randomized controlled trials of strategies that aim to decrease cardiovascular disease risk by improving endothelial function and decreasing low-grade inflammation, especially for T2D patients.
Endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation may explain, at least in part, the increased cardiovascular disease risk in type 2 diabetes (T2D). For endothelial dysfunction, the association with cardiovascular mortality was stronger in diabetic than in nondiabetic individuals (P interaction=0.06). T2D-associated endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation explained 43% of the increase in cardiovascular mortality risk conferred by T2D.
Key Words: epidemiology • diabetes mellitus • endothelium • inflammation • mortality
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Introduction |
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Up to 75% of individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D) will die of cardiovascular disease.1 However, the mechanisms responsible for the high cardiovascular disease risk that accompanies T2D and possibly impaired glucose metabolism (IGM; ie, impaired fasting glucose and (or) impaired glucose tolerance)2 remain poorly understood. There is strong evidence that conventional risk factors, such as hypertension, obesity, and dyslipidemia, cannot fully explain the high cardiovascular disease risk associated with deteriorated glucose tolerance.3
It is commonly held that endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation, 2 key features in the pathophysiology of atherothrombosis,4–7 can explain, at least in part, why deteriorated glucose tolerance is associated with cardiovascular disease.2,8 However, there is no direct evidence for this contention, and several important issues have remained unresolved. First, it is not clear to what extent the associations of IGM and T2D on the one hand with endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation on the other are independent of other risk factors associated with deteriorated glucose tolerance. Second, it is not known whether associations of endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation with cardiovascular disease are independent of other conventional cardiovascular risk factors and indicators, nor to what extent these associations overlap or represent distinct pathways. If these pathways are distinct, then associations of endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation with cardiovascular disease will be expected to be mutually independent. Finally, it is not known to what extent associations of IGM and T2D with cardiovascular disease are in fact accounted for by IGM- and T2D-associated endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation.
We addressed these questions in the Hoorn Study, a prospective population-based cohort study of glucose tolerance and cardiovascular disease.9,10
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Materials and Methods |
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General Study Design
This study was part of the Hoorn Study, a population-based cohort study of glucose tolerance and cardiovascular disease in a white population in Hoorn, The Netherlands, of which the baseline measurement was performed from October 1989 to February 1992.9,10 Briefly, a random sample of all men and women 50 to 75 years of age was drawn from the municipal population registration office of Hoorn; 2484 individuals participated (response rate 71%). The present study population is an age-, sex-, and glucose-tolerance-stratified random subsample (n=631; response rate 89%) in whom an extensive investigation of diabetes complications was performed.9,10 For the present analyses, we used the 1999 World Health Organization criteria and classified individuals as having normal glucose metabolism (NGM), IGM, or T2D based on 2 glucose tolerance tests.11
The Hoorn Study was approved by the ethical review committee of the VU University Hospital. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Baseline Investigations
We considered plasma levels of von Willebrand factor (vWF) and soluble vascular adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1) as markers of endothelial function12–14 and plasma levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) as markers of low-grade inflammation.15,16 Microalbuminuria was not used as a marker of endothelial function because we have shown previously that microalbuminuria in the Hoorn Study is heterogeneous in terms of its association with endothelial dysfunction.17
Markers of Endothelial Dysfunction and Low-Grade Inflammation
Concentrations of vWF, sVCAM-1, CRP, and sICAM-1 were assessed in deep frozen (–70°C) heparin plasma samples. vWF, sVCAM-1, and sICAM-1 were estimated in duplicate by ELISA.18–20 For vWF and sVCAM-1, no plasma samples were available for 21 subjects. Concentrations of CRP were measured with a highly sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay, as described previously.18 For CRP and sICAM-1, no plasma samples were available for 23 subjects.
Other Measurements
We obtained an ankle-brachial blood pressure index (n=631) and a resting ECG (n=625).9,10 Subjects were classified as having cardiovascular disease when they had a history of myocardial infarction or had an ECG with a Minnesota code 1.1 to 1.3, 4.1 to 4.3, 5.1 to 5.3, or 7.1 or had undergone coronary bypass surgery or angioplasty, or had an ankle-brachial pressure index <0.9 in either leg, or had undergone a peripheral arterial bypass or nontraumatic amputation. In addition, we obtained data on blood pressure, weight, height, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, glycohemoglobin, serum creatinine, homocysteine, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, smoking habits, and the use of medication. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol was calculated by the Friedewald formula21 except when the triglyceride level was >4.55 mmol/L (n=23). Hypertension was defined as a blood pressure 
140 mm Hg systolic and/or 90 mm Hg diastolic and/or the current use of antihypertensive medication. Subjects were classified as current cigarette smokers or nonsmokers. The glomerular filtration rate was calculated according to Levey et al.22
Follow-Up
For each subject, we determined whether or not death had occurred during follow-up, and if so, the date at which death occurred. Data on the subjects’ vital status on January 1, 2003, were collected from the mortality register of the municipality of Hoorn. Of 51 subjects who had moved out of town, information on vital status was obtained from the new local municipalities. For all subjects who had died, the cause of death was extracted from the medical records of the general practitioner and the hospital of Hoorn, and classified according to the ninth edition of the International Classification of Diseases.23 Cardiovascular mortality was defined as codes 378 and 390 to 459. Information on cause of death could not be obtained for 33 (19%) of the deceased subjects, and 1 subject was lost to follow-up.
Statistical Analyses
Because markers of endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory activity show marked intraindividual (day-to-day) variation and because we measured these markers only once, the associations (if any) of endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory activity with other variables will tend to be underestimated. As a result of this, statistical power will be diminished. To address this concern, we created mean SD scores (z scores) for markers of endothelial dysfunction and chronic low-grade inflammation and used these in regression analyses as described below. For each subject, each variable was expressed as SDs of difference from the population mean, which was calculated using all available data on the separate markers (n=608 and 610 [of 631] for the endothelial dysfunction and inflammation z scores, respectively). The z scores were calculated as the mean of these SD scores as follows: (1) endothelial dysfunction z score=[vWF + sVCAM-1]/2 and (2) inflammation z score=[CRP + sICAM-1]/2.
To assess to what extent the associations of T2D and IGM on the one hand with endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation on the other were independent of other risk factors known to be associated with deteriorated glucose tolerance, we performed linear regression analyses. Endothelial dysfunction or inflammation z scores were entered as dependent variables and T2D and IGM as independent variables, with adjustment for potential confounders. Results are described as regression coefficients (ß) with 95% CIs.
To assess associations of markers of endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation with risks of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, we performed Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazards multiple regression analyses. Because of the stratification procedure, we first adjusted for age, sex, and glucose tolerance status in all models and, subsequently, for other potential confounders. Variables measured on a continuous scale were used as such in the regression models except for levels of sVCAM-1, CRP, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure because of their nonlinear association with mortality. Therefore, a high level of sVCAM-1 was defined as in the upper tertile (>1485 ng/mL); data on CRP were log-transformed before analysis; and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were defined as high (140 mm Hg and 90 mm Hg, respectively) or low. In spite of the nonlinear association of sVCAM-1 (all-cause) and CRP (both all-cause and cardiovascular) with mortality, additional analysis showed that associations between the z scores and mortality were nevertheless best described as linear. To evaluate a possible interaction between glucose tolerance status and endothelial dysfunction or low-grade inflammation, Cox regression analyses were performed with glucose tolerance status, the endothelial dysfunction or inflammation z score, their product term, age, and sex in the model. A significant hazard ratio for the product term was considered indicative for interaction of glucose tolerance status with either low-grade inflammation or endothelial dysfunction. Results are described as relative risks (hazard ratios) with 95% CIs.
To assess to what extent associations of T2D and IGM with cardiovascular mortality could in fact be explained by T2D- and IGM-associated endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation, we performed Cox regression analyses without and with adjustments for the endothelial dysfunction and inflammation z scores and without and with potential interaction terms. Percentages explained were calculated using the regression coefficients instead of hazard ratios because of the logarithmic character of the hazard ratio. All models were fitted comparing T2D and IGM to NGM, and T2D to IGM separately.
Two-sided P values <0.05 were considered statistically significant except for the interaction analyses, where P values <0.10 were used.
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Results |
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The median duration of follow-up was 11.7 years (range 0.5 to 13.2 years). After follow-up, 174 (55 NGM, 43 IGM, and 76 T2D) of the 631 subjects had died, of whom 66 (38%; 17 NGM, 16 IGM, and 33 T2D) had died of cardiovascular disease. Table 1 shows the baseline characteristics of the study population according to glucose tolerance status.
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Glucose Tolerance Status Is Associated With Endothelial Dysfunction and Low-Grade Inflammation
Table 2 and Figure I (available online at http://atvb.ahajournals.org) show that T2D was significantly associated with both endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation, whereas IGM was associated only with low-grade inflammation.
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Higher Levels of Markers of Endothelial Dysfunction and Low-Grade Inflammation Are Associated With Greater Mortality Risks
Figure 1
and Table 3 show that in general, higher levels of markers of endothelial dysfunction, low-grade inflammation, and their z scores were associated with greater mortality risks. For example, the hazard ratio of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality associated with the inflammation z score were 1.43 (1.17 to 1.77) and 1.27 (1.10 to 1.47) per SD difference. For endothelial dysfunction, the associations with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality were stronger in diabetic than in nondiabetic individuals (P interaction=0.064 and 0.028; Table 3). For example, the cardiovascular mortality hazard ratio associated with the endothelial dysfunction z score was 1.87 (1.43 to 2.45) for diabetic individuals compared with 1.23 (0.86 to 1.75) in nondiabetic individuals. For all-cause mortality, the hazard ratio was 1.41 (1.16 to 1.72) in diabetic individuals and 1.09 (0.87 to 1.36) in nondiabetic individuals. Results were similar when individual markers were used instead of the endothelial dysfunction and inflammation z scores (data not shown). Table I shows that adjustment for potential confounders (hypertension, smoking, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, previous cardiovascular disease, body mass index, homocysteine, and glomerular filtration rate) did not markedly change the associations of the endothelial dysfunction and inflammation z scores with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality.
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Endothelial Dysfunction and Low-Grade Inflammation Explain Much of the Cardiovascular Mortality Risks Associated With T2D
Table II (available online at http://atvb.ahajournals.org) shows that T2D was significantly associated with both cardiovascular and all-cause mortality (2.74 [1.52 to 4.92] and 1.90 [1.34 to 2.69], respectively), but IGM was not (1.25 [0.63 to 2.48] and 1.05 [0.70 to 1.56], respectively). Adjustment for the endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation z scores reduced the magnitude of the association between T2D and cardiovascular mortality by 34% and 25%, respectively. Together, the z scores explained 43% of the cardiovascular mortality risk associated with T2D (Table II; Figure 2). Results were similar when adjusted for the individual markers instead of the endothelial dysfunction and inflammation z scores (data not shown). Adjustment for traditional risk factors such as hypertension, smoking, LDL cholesterol, body mass index, and previous cardiovascular disease did not reduce the magnitude of the association between T2D and cardiovascular mortality to this extent (Table II).
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Additional Analyses
Exclusion of individuals with impaired fasting glucose (n=29) did not affect the results (data not shown). The following additional adjustments also did not materially affect our results: analyses using waist or waist-to-hip ratio instead of body mass index; analyses using the creatinine clearance according to the Cockcroft-Gault criteria instead of the glomerular filtration rate; and analyses that adjusted for microalbuminuria. Hazard ratios remained constant over time (data not shown).
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Discussion |
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Our study on endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation in individuals without and with T2D had 3 main findings. First, T2D was associated with both endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation, whereas IGM was associated only with low-grade inflammation. These findings were independent of other risk factors that accompany T2D or IGM. Second, endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation were associated with greater risks of cardiovascular mortality, especially in T2D. Third, T2D-associated endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation explained
43% of the greater cardiovascular mortality risk conferred by T2D. Strengths of our study include its population-based design, the long follow-up (up to 13 years), the limited loss to follow-up, and the extensive characterization of participants at baseline. In addition, the results were robust and consistent across the markers of endothelial dysfunction and inflammation used.
As expected, T2D was associated with both endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation.12,18,24 In contrast, IGM was associated only with low-grade inflammation, which is in agreement with previous studies that have shown a much clearer association of IGM with low-grade inflammation than with endothelial dysfunction,25–29 which, to some extent, appears to depend on the endothelial function marker used.28–36 Together, these data suggest that endothelial dysfunction is not universal in IGM and may depend on other factors not identified in these studies.
Endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation were associated with higher risks of cardiovascular mortality, consistent with previous studies.7,18–20,37 Importantly, we show that for endothelial dysfunction, these associations were stronger in diabetic than in nondiabetic individuals, were independent of other cardiovascular risk factors, remained present during up to 13 years of follow-up, and appeared mutually independent,7,37 indicating that they may represent largely distinct pathways of disease and therefore distinct targets for intervention.
Both endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation appeared to explain parts of the increased mortality risks associated with T2D. However, the role of endothelial dysfunction seems especially relevant because of its interaction with T2D. Together, our data suggest that treatments to improve the cardiovascular prognosis of individuals with T2D should focus on improving endothelial function and decreasing chronic inflammation. The causes of endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation in T2D remain incompletely understood and may include not only obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and hyperglycemia (the metabolic syndrome), but also advanced glycation end products.12 In addition, endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation may precede and contribute to the occurrence of T2D.38
In the present study, IGM was not clearly associated with an increased mortality risk (although the confidence limits show that we could not exclude any such associations with great certainty), and we therefore could not test the influence of endothelial dysfunction or low-grade inflammation. Other reports from the Hoorn Study have shown that 2-hour postload plasma glucose concentrations do predict cardiovascular and all-cause mortality but mostly in the diabetic range.2,39 Other studies on IGM and risk of mortality have reported inconsistent results.40–46
Our study has several limitations. First, its relatively small size and consequently limited power may have obscured more subtle associations. Second, the incomplete assessment of endothelial function and inflammatory activity may have increased nondifferential misclassification, leading to an underestimation of the hazard ratios presented here. However, our results were robust and consistent with previous experience. Third, we used sICAM-1 as a marker of inflammation, although sICAM-1 can be regarded as a marker of both endothelial function and inflammation.16,47 However, to classify sICAM-1 as a marker of inflammation can be considered the most conservative alternative because sICAM-1 is not selectively derived from endothelial cells but originates from leukocytes as well. However, sICAM-1 upregulation is driven by inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-
and interleukin-8, resulting in the activation of nuclear factor 
B.48 Importantly, additional analyses showed that our conclusions remain unchanged when sICAM-1 is classified as a marker of endothelial function (data not shown). Fourth, we studied white individuals, and the results therefore are not necessarily valid for other ethnicities. Fifth, an assumption in the construction of the z scores is that its components are equally important, which is not necessarily true. Nevertheless, z scores have the considerable merit of increased precision, as demonstrated by the smaller CIs of the z scores compared with those of the individual markers and, possibly, of increased validity because these z scores address various aspects of endothelial dysfunction and inflammation, respectively. Finally, because traditional risk factors were measured only once, we may, to some extent, have underestimated their associations with mortality, although previous analyses from the Hoorn Study have shown that traditional risk factors, even if measured only once, do in fact predict mortality.49
In conclusion, we have shown that T2D is associated with both endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation, whereas IGM is associated only with low-grade inflammation, that endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation are associated with greater risks of cardiovascular mortality, especially in T2D, and that T2D-associated endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation can explain 43% of the higher cardiovascular mortality risk conferred by T2D. These data emphasize the necessity of randomized controlled trials of strategies that aim to decrease cardiovascular disease risk by improving endothelial function and decreasing low-grade inflammation, especially in T2D, for which endothelial dysfunction is particularly ominous and for which both endothelial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation are highly prevalent.
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Acknowledgments |
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The funding source of the Hoorn Study has no role in the study design, the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, in the writing of the report, and in the decision to submit the article for publication. L.M.B., J.M.D., R.J.H., G.N., and C.D.A.S. are responsible for the design and management of the Hoorn Study. J.d.J., P.J.K., and J.M.D. did the statistical analyses. J.d.J. and C.S. drafted this manuscript. All authors contributed to the final version of this manuscript. All authors have seen and approved the final version. The corresponding author had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Received December 5, 2005; accepted February 10, 2006.
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