© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Atherosclerosis and Lipoproteins |
High-Fat, High-Cholesterol Diet Increases the Incidence of Gastritis in LDL Receptor–Negative Mice
From the Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (A.L., S.M., W.P., J.L.W.) and Division of Infectious Diseases (S.P.C., M.O., J.F.), Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, and VA Healthcare San Diego (J.F.), La Jolla, Calif. The first 2 authors contributed equally to this work.
Correspondence to Joseph L. Witztum, MD, University of California, San Diego, 1080 Basic Science Bldg, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093-0682. E-mail witztum{at}ucsd.edu
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Abstract |
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Abstract—Transgenic and knockout mice are widely used as models for atherogenesis studies. While developing a Helicobacter infection model in LDL receptor–negative (LDLR-/-) mice, we noticed that mice fed a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet often contracted gastritis independent of infection. To further investigate this finding, we studied 27 male and 18 female LDLR-/- mice fed high-fat, 1% or 1.25% cholesterol diets for 3 to 4 months. The extent of atherosclerosis was morphometrically analyzed in the whole aorta, and the degree of gastric inflammation was scored histologically in hematoxylin-eosin–stained stomach sections. The autoantibody titers to epitopes of oxidized LDL were also measured. Mice fed high-fat, high-cholesterol diets had a significantly higher incidence of gastritis than mice fed normal chow, 62% versus 5%, respectively (P<0.0001). This effect was specific for LDLR-/- mice, because no difference in gastritis was found in wild-type mice fed either diet. Animals with gastritis showed slightly more atherosclerosis than animals without gastritis: 16.3±6.4% versus 12.8±3.4% in males and 9.4±3.5% versus 6.5±3.3% in females. Cholesterol-fed mice also had significantly higher IgG autoantibody titers against modified LDL than normal chow–fed animals, but no difference was seen between the gastritis and nongastritis groups. We conclude that the standard high-fat, high-cholesterol diet commonly used in many murine models to induce atherosclerosis increased the incidence of gastritis significantly in LDLR-/- mice.
Key Words: inflammation • atherosclerosis • gastritis
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Introduction |
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Mice are rapidly becoming a preferred model for studies of atherosclerosis. Most wild-type mice are generally resistant to hypercholesterolemia and atherogenesis, even when placed on a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet. C57BL/6 mice, however, have an increased susceptibility to atherosclerosis,1 and a large number of transgenic and gene-knockout models based on this genetic background develop substantial hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis.2 In these models, the development of transitional and advanced atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic origin and throughout the aorta is generally dependent on prolonged feeding of high-fat, high-cholesterol diets. For example, LDL receptor–negative (LDLR-/-) mice fed normal murine chow develop plasma cholesterol levels of
250 mg/dL and
limited atherosclerosis, whereas
high-cholesterol diets induce cholesterol
levels >1200 mg/dL and extensive atherosclerosis
throughout the aortic
tree.3 4 In
contrast, apolipoprotein (apo) E–deficient
(apoE-/-) mice spontaneously develop
substantial hypercholesterolemia and
atherosclerosis even on a normal chow
diet.5 6
Nevertheless, many studies in apoE-/-
mice use "Western" diets with increased cholesterol
content to further raise plasma cholesterol levels and
accelerate lesion
formation.3 7 8 9 Mice fed high-cholesterol diets have been used extensively to study atherogenic mechanisms of apoproteins and lipoproteins, lipoprotein and scavenger receptors, the role of the immune system, and the effects of diabetes.2 A number of observations have been made, however, that may complicate the interpretation of results from these studies. One such observation is the fact that high-fat diets induce not only hypercholesterolemia but also insulin resistance in LDLR-/- mice.10 In the present article, we report another potentially confounding effect associated with high-fat diets.
Helicobacter pylori infection (and subsequently gastritis) was recently associated with cardiovascular diseases,11 12 although the link is controversial. During a preliminary study attempting to develop a murine model in which the influence of Helicobacter infection on atherogenesis could be investigated, we noticed that LDLR-/- mice fed high-fat, high-cholesterol diets more frequently showed signs of gastritis than mice fed standard chow, independently of Helicobacter infection. Because atherosclerosis has many characteristics of an inflammatory disease, it might be anticipated that any chronic inflammation might lead to systemic effects that could accelerate the atherogenic process. Therefore, we decided to test the hypothesis that gastritis would accelerate the development of atherosclerosis and could in part explain some of the variability in the lesion formation between individual animals in many previous reports.
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Methods |
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Animals and Diets
Study 1
In each of 3 separate experiments, we used fifth-generation LDLR-/- mice (C57BL/6Jx129Sv) from a breeding colony established from animals originally obtained from Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor, Me). In a preliminary experiment, sixteen 3-month-old female LDLR-/- mice were fed a high-fat, 1.25% cholesterol diet (TD 92121, Harlan Teklad) for 8 weeks. Eight of the mice were infected with Helicobacter felis, a strain known to infect and induce gastritis in mice.13 An additional 8 noninfected female mice of the same age were fed normal chow (Rodent Diet 8604, Harlan Teklad). The composition of the diets is presented in Table 1
. Although the infection was unsuccessful, as
based on urease breath test, histology, and bacterial culture, we
noticed that the incidence of gastric inflammation was high in the
noninfected cholesterol-fed animals compared with normal
chow–fed animals.
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Study 2
To further investigate this unanticipated finding, we
examined a group of male LDLR-/- mice
that were available from another ongoing study. In that study, 27
animals had been fed a high-fat, 1% cholesterol diet (TD
95286, Harlan Teklad) for 4.5 months. Twenty controls had been fed
normal chow.
Study 3
In addition, we carried out a third prospective study
using twenty-six 8- to 9-month-old female
LDLR-/- mice. Of these, 18 were
fed the high-fat, 1.25% cholesterol diet and 8 the normal
chow for 3 months. In all 3 studies, mice were weighed and 100-µL
blood samples were obtained by retro-orbital bleeding at 4- to 6-week
intervals. Total plasma cholesterol and
triglyceride levels were determined by an automated
enzymatic procedure (Boehringer Mannheim
Diagnostics). In study 1, the animals were euthanized at
age 4 to 5 months, in study 2 at age 7 to 8 months, and in study 3 at
age 11 to 12 months.
Study 4
To determine whether cholesterol-induced
gastritis was specific for LDLR-/- mice,
wild-type C57BL/6 mice were also fed high-fat,
high-cholesterol diets in a control experiment. Ten female
mice were fed the high-fat, 1.25% cholesterol diet
(TD92121) and 10 mice were fed normal chow for 3.5 months.
For all of these studies, mice were housed in separate
groups, 
4 to a cage, on a 12-hour light cycle and with access to food
and water ad libitum. Mice were killed and the stomachs processed as
described below.
Morphometric Determination of
Atherosclerosis
The morphometric analysis of
atherosclerosis was performed as previously
described.4 9 In
brief, anesthetized mice were killed by exsanguination from the
inferior vena cava. The systemic circulation was perfused
with PBS containing EDTA through a needle in the left ventricle until
the effluent was free of blood and then fixed by perfusion with 4%
paraformaldehyde–5% sucrose solution for 5 minutes.
The aorta was cleaned, opened, pinned on a black wax surface, and
stained with Sudan IV as described
earlier.9 The relative aortic
surface area covered by atherosclerotic lesions was measured by
computer-assisted image analysis as
described.4
Atherosclerosis was determined in 10
cholesterol-fed mice from study 2 and in all mice from the
prospective study 3.
Evaluation of Gastric Inflammation
The stomach was removed, split longitudinally, and
fixed for 24 hours with paraformaldehyde. Fixed tissue
was embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin and
eosin. The presence of inflammation was analyzed on whole
longitudinal sections of the
stomach.13 Three separate
characteristics were evaluated, and each was graded on a scale of 0 to
3. The characteristics were (1) the number of inflammatory cells, (2)
the depth of the inflammation in the mucosa, and (3) the extent of
inflammation in different parts of the stomach, ie, antrum, fundus, and
nonglandular area. The scores were added to obtain a single
"inflammation score" for each animal. A score of 5 shows a
clinically significant degree of inflammation and corresponds to a
histological diagnosis of gastritis. For statistical
analysis, the animals were therefore divided according to the
inflammation score into a "gastritis" (score 
5) and a
"nongastritis" (score <5) group. In addition, absolute
inflammation scores for each animal were also used for some
analyses.
Measurement of Antibodies Against
Oxidation-Specific Epitopes
The binding of circulating IgG, IgA, and IgM
autoantibodies to malondialdehyde-modified LDL (MDA-LDL), a model
epitope of oxidized LDL, was measured as previously described, with a
plasma dilution of 1:250.14
IgG and IgM antibodies were measured from the end-point samples of
studies 2 and 3. IgA antibodies were measured from 15
cholesterol-fed mice, from 7 control mice in study 2, and
from all animals in study 3.
Statistical Analysis
ANOVA was used to compare the means of variables
between the high-cholesterol diet and normal chow groups.
Mann-Whitney U test was used to
analyze the data in the 2 gastritis groups (gastritis, score
5 and nongastritis, score <5) in studies 2 and 3. Bivariate
correlations were examined by Pearson correlation coefficient. Multiple
regression analysis was used to evaluate the influence of sex,
plasma cholesterol levels, and the degree of inflammation
on the development of
atherosclerosis.
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Results |
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Effects of Diets on Gastritis
The gastric mucosa of each animal was examined histologically and assigned an inflammatory score, as described in Methods. The young control animals fed normal chow in study 1 showed no sign of inflammation in the gastric mucosa. Figure 1A
provides an example of the normal gastric
mucosa with essentially no inflammatory cells and normal submucosa and
muscle wall. The inflammatory score would be 0 for this animal. The
gastric sections of older control animals in studies 2 and 3 frequently
displayed some lymphocytes and plasma cells in the mucosa, especially
at the border of the fundus and nonglandular area, and were scored from
1 to 4. A comparable slight increase in cell number with increasing age
is often found in human
samples.15 In
cholesterol-fed animals, a variable but generally much
higher number of inflammatory cells was found throughout the gastric
mucosa.
Figure 1B shows an example of gastric inflammation with
abundant accumulation of inflammatory cells throughout the mucosa and
extending into the submucosa. The micrograph represents a
stomach section that was categorized as 7. Cell infiltrates consisted
mainly of lymphocytes, with some plasma cells and neutrophils. In some
animals, even more severe gastritis with frank ulcerations was found,
as shown in
Figure 1C, scored as 9.
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The degree of gastric inflammation in individual
animals expressed as the inflammation score is shown in
Figure 2. In each study, the incidence of gastritis (score
5) was significantly higher in animals fed a
high-cholesterol diet than in animals given normal chow. In
study 1, 37% (3/8) of the cholesterol-fed group had an
inflammation score 5, compared with 0% (0/8) of the control animals
(P<0.05). In study 2, 63%
(17/27) of cholesterol-fed animals had gastritis, versus
10% (2/20) of the control animals
(P<0.0001), and in study 3,
72% (13/18) of the cholesterol-fed animals had gastritis,
versus 0% (0/8) of control animals
(P<0.001). The mean
inflammation scores are shown in
Table 2. For all 3 studies, the average inflammation score
of all cholesterol-fed animals was 5.3±2.4 and that of all
control animals 2.2±1.4
(P<0.0001).
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In contrast, in study 4, wild-type C57BL/6 mice fed a high-cholesterol diet had the same low gastritis scores as animals fed normal chow. Ten mice were fed a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet, and 10 control mice were fed normal chow for 3.5 months. Neither group had gastritis, with a mean score of 2.4±1.5 for the control mice and 3.2±1.2 for the cholesterol-fed mice. The highest score was 5.0, which represented 1 mouse from the normal chow group. The difference between the 2 groups was not significant (P>0.1).
In all studies, the cholesterol-fed mice
gained significantly more weight than the control mice
(Table 2
). The weight gain of the
cholesterol-fed LDLR-/- mice
tended to be slightly higher in animals with gastritis than in animals
without gastritis, but the difference was not statistically significant
(Table 3).
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Effects of Gastritis on Plasma
Cholesterol Levels and Extent of
Atherosclerosis
As expected, the total plasma cholesterol
levels in the LDLR-/- mice were 6 to 8
times higher in cholesterol-fed mice than in control
animals
(Table 2). When cholesterol-fed mice with or
without gastritis were compared, the mean plasma lipid levels tended to
be slightly higher in animals without gastritis than in animals with
gastritis
(Table 3). However, no correlation between the inflammation
score and cholesterol levels was found.
Female mice of study 3 appeared to develop less
atherosclerosis throughout the aorta than male mice in
study 2, as shown in
Table 2. In cholesterol-fed animals, the mean
lesion area was 8.6% in females and 14.9% in males. This is in
agreement with previous reports from our
laboratory.3 In the old
control female animals, the lesion area varied from 2.5% to 6.3%
(mean 4.5%). In studies 2 and 3, cholesterol-fed animals
with gastritis had somewhat more atherosclerosis than
animals without gastritis, but the differences were not statistically
significant
(Table 3).
To explicitly test the hypothesis that the inflammation
associated with gastritis would accelerate
atherosclerosis, we examined the correlation between
the degree of lesion formation and the gastric inflammation score. As
shown in
Figure 3, the extent of atherosclerosis did
show a weak correlation with the inflammation score, consistent
with the hypothesis tested
(r=0.32;
P=0.047, 1-tailed
analysis). In stepwise multiple regression analysis,
however, only sex and plasma cholesterol levels were found
to be significantly correlated with the degree of
atherosclerosis.
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Because it is conceivable that inflammatory processes
associated with gastritis lead to increased lipid oxidation and because
this may modulate the titer of circulating antibodies to
oxidation-specific epitopes, we also measured the binding of antibodies
to MDA-LDL, an oxidation-specific epitope found during the oxidation of
LDL in the dietary groups
(Table 4). In study 2, IgG and IgM antibodies to MDA-LDL
were significantly higher in cholesterol-fed mice than in
controls. Study 3 yielded similar results, although the difference in
IgM binding did not reach significance. An analogous increase in IgG
and IgM antibody during increasing atherogenesis has been reported
previously in mice16 and in
many studies in humans with coronary artery
disease.17 18 IgA
antibody binding was significantly increased in the
cholesterol-fed animals of study 3, but not those of study
2. When data were compared between animals with or without gastritis,
however, no significant differences were found (data not
shown).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The present study provides the first evidence that a standard high-fat, high-cholesterol diet used for atherosclerosis studies in LDLR-/- mice is associated with a high incidence of gastritis in these animals. Thirty-five percent of the cholesterol-fed LDLR-/- mice developed moderate to severe gastritis within
3 months. Even those
LDLR-/- mice that did not develop overt
gastritis showed more gastric inflammation when placed on a high-fat,
high-cholesterol diet
(Figure 2). In contrast, feeding the same high-fat,
high-cholesterol diet to wild-type C57BL/6 mice did not
increase the incidence of gastritis, suggesting that
hypercholesterolemia and/or the absence of LDLR
plays a role in the cholesterol-induced
gastritis.
LDLR-/- mice develop severe
hypercholesterolemia when fed such
high-cholesterol
diets.2 In this setting, we
have previously demonstrated an enhanced formation of autoantibodies to
epitopes of oxidized LDL, consistent with the enhanced
atherogenesis.16 These
observations have been confirmed here and strongly suggest the enhanced
presence of oxidized LDL (and/or the associated oxidized lipids) in
LDLR-/- mice that are fed
high-cholesterol diets. Oxidized LDL has been reported to
increase the expression of nuclear factor-
B
(NF-B),19 a
transcriptional regulator that stimulates production of a
number of proinflammatory cytokines. Indeed, a number of
cellular signaling molecules are upregulated in experimental
hypercholesterolemia, including
NF-B.20 Upregulation of
this DNA binding protein is also a hallmark of gastritis, resulting in
the induction of proinflammatory cytokines and the recruitment
of neutrophils, lymphocytes, and macrophages to the stomach
mucosa.21 Thus, it is
possible that NF-B, or another common signaling factor, is
upregulated in both the coronary vascular
endothelium and gastric mucosa as a response to high
cholesterol levels. Because mucosal damage in
H pylori–induced gastritis is
predominantly due to overstimulation of host inflammatory
cells,22 it is likely that
the relatively high levels of oxidized LDL or oxidized lipids
present in the LDLR-/- mice serve as
a similar chronic stimulus.
Alternatively, other components of the high-fat,
high-cholesterol diet may contribute to the gastritis. As
shown in
Table 1, the high-fat, high-cholesterol diet
differed in many respects from the control chow. Nevertheless, the high
fat and/or high cholesterol content appears to be primarily
responsible for the resulting gastritis. Indeed, Bagchi et
al23 recently reported that
a high-fat diet induces gastric mucosal damage in rats. They showed
that the superoxide anion production in the gastric mucosa was
increased 5.7-fold and lipid peroxidation 2.6-fold by the high-fat
diet. In dogs, gastric pathology similar to that found in this study
was attributed to irritant or toxic effects of chemicals or food
supplements.24 The standard
high-fat, high-cholesterol diet used in the present
experiments, however, did not contain drugs or artificial nutrients. It
was also free of cholic acid, used in many murine models in which only
moderate hypercholesterolemia is achieved by
dietary means. A high-fat diet may induce mucosal damage by direct
chemical irritation.23
Moreover, it has been shown that high cholesterol intake
increases cholic acid synthesis and bile acid
pools.25 Conceivably, the
effect might be due to bile reflux, a known cause of
gastritis,15 rather than a
direct effect of lipids on the gastric mucosa.
In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that a standard high-fat, high-cholesterol diet is associated with a marked increase in gastritis in LDLR-/- mice and suggests that this may constitute a complicating factor in many studies using this model.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by the Academy of Finland and the Maud Kuistila Foundation (Dr Laurila) and by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant HL-56989 (La Jolla Specialized Center of Research in Molecular Medicine and Atherosclerosis).
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Footnotes |
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1 Both authors contributed equally to this study.
Received August 25, 2000; accepted April 23, 2001.
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