© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Vascular Biology |
Expression of Angiopoietin-1 in Human Glioblastomas Regulates Tumor-Induced Angiogenesis
In Vivo and In Vitro Studies
From the Division of Molecular Angiogenesis (E.A., I.C., I.Z., F.B.), Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment, Torino, Italy; the Department of Genetics, Biology, and Biochemistry (E.A., I.C., I.Z., F.B.) and the Department of Neuroscience (R.P., D.S.), University of Torino, Torino, Italy; and the Department of Neurology and Department of Biological and Technological Research (S.C.P.), San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy.
Correspondence to Federico Bussolino, MD, Divisione di Angiogenesi Molecolare-I.R.C.C., Universita di Torino, Sp. 142, Km 3.95, 10060 Candiolo (Torino), Italy. E-mail fbussolino{at}ircc.unito.it
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Abstract—To define a role for the angiopoietin/Tie2 system in astrocytoma angiogenesis, we examined the expression of angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) in these tumors by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Furthermore, we studied in vitro the effects elicited by glioblastoma cell–secreted Ang1 or by recombinant Ang1 on functions of endothelial cells (ECs). Our observations of astrocytomas show that a stage-specific induction of angiopoietins occurs and is correlated with angiogenic phases of different intensity. Ang1 expression was found in a few astrocytes scattered in the tumor at all stages of astrocytoma progression. In blood vessels, Ang1 mRNA increased progressively in high-grade glioblastomas, in which the number of vessels was higher than in low-grade tumors. Ang2 was detected in tumor cells and in ECs in high-grade astrocytomas, whereas its expression was negligible in low-grade tumors. Coculture of glioblastoma cell lines producing Ang1 with endothelium demonstrated a key role of this ligand in the control of EC network organization. We found that recombinant Ang1 in vitro induces EC spreading and reorganization of the cell monolayer into cordlike structures. These results suggest that Ang1 directly acts on ECs by modulating cell-cell and cell-matrix associations and promoting the differentiation phase of angiogenesis.
Key Words: angiopoietins • glioblastomas • angiogenesis
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Astrocytic tumors can be separated by histological grading into low- and high-grade astrocytomas (anaplastic astrocytoma and glioblastoma multiforme), on the basis of increasing malignant phenotype.1 Their progression is accompanied by an increased tissue vascularization with aspects of prominent proliferation that is peculiar to high-grade astrocytomas.2
The establishment and the remodeling of new blood vessels in normal tissues and in tumors, including those of the central nervous system, require paracrine signals.3 4 5 Angiopoietins (Ang1 and Ang2) constitute a family of endothelial growth factors that are ligands for the tyrosine kinase receptor Tie2, which is expressed in endothelial cells (ECs) and upregulated in tumor microvessels.6 7 8 9 In vitro, Ang1 promotes EC sprouting, survival, and migration,10 11 12 whereas Ang2 blocks the activation of Tie2 induced by Ang1.7 Disruption of the function of either Tie2 or Ang1 in mice resulted in lethal defects in the developing vasculature, such as simplification of the vascular branching pattern and failure to recruit accessory cells.13 14 Consistent with its action as an Ang1/Tie2 inhibitor, overexpression of Ang2 in mice results in defects similar to those observed in Ang1 or Tie2 knockouts.7 These studies suggest that angiopoietins play their role during vascular remodeling and maturation. Furthermore, they contribute to the vessel integrity through the establishment of appropriate cell-cell and cell-matrix connections.6 7
To clarify the role of angiopoietins in the vascularization of human astrocytomas, we have analyzed their expression in a series of specimens of different histological grading and in glioblastoma cell lines. Furthermore, the functional role of Ang1 in vascular formation has been investigated in ECs cocultured with glioblastoma cells and by use of the recombinant molecule.
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Tumor Samples and Cell Cultures
Three low-grade astrocytomas, 4 anaplastic astrocytomas, and 3 glioblastomas multiformes diagnosed according to World Health Organization classification1 and 3 normal brain specimens were studied.
Human umbilical vein ECs (HUVECs) and human microvascular ECs (Dr E. Ades, Biological Products Branch, Atlanta, Ga) were cultured as previously described.15 Glioblastoma cell lines ADF (Dr G. Donelli, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy), DF and LI (Dr G. Zupi, Istituto Regina Elena, Rome, Italy), U87 (American Tissue Culture Collection), and U373 (Dr A. Colombatti, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico, Aviano, Italy) were maintained in RPMI 1640 (Sigma Chemical Co) supplemented with 10% FCS (Sigma) and antibiotics.
Immunohistochemistry and Quantitative
Analysis
Deparaffinized sections were saturated in blocking
solution (DAKO A/S) for 30 minutes and then incubated overnight at
4°C with (1) goat polyclonal antibodies against the C-terminus
peptide of human Ang1 and Ang2 (1:200, Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc),
(2) mAb against human CD31 (1:40, DAKO), and (3) mAb against glial
fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, 1:100, Calbiochem). Specificity of
anti-Ang1 and anti-Ang2 was tested by incubating antibodies with the
respective immunizing peptides before immunostaining.
Sections were incubated with secondary antibodies for 1 hour
(biotinylated rabbit anti-mouse IgG [1:200] or anti-goat IgG
[1:400], DAKO). For negative controls, the primary antibody was
deleted. Staining was developed by the streptavidin-peroxidase-complex
(DAKO). Immunoreactivity of antibody against Ang1 was amplified by the
Tyramide Signal Amplification (TSA) method (NEN Life
Sciences).
For microvessel quantification, please see http://atvb.ahajournals.org.
In Situ Hybridization and Reverse
Transcriptase–Polymerase Chain Reaction
The full human Ang1 and Ang2 cDNA and a 1940-bp Tie2
cDNA fragment (positions 88 to 2022) subcloned into pBluescript SK were
used to generate RNA probes by in vitro transcription with the use of
T7 and T3 polymerases in the presence of digoxigenin-labeled UTP
(Boehringer-Mannheim). RNA probes were reduced to 400- to
500-bp fragments with 0.1 mol/L NaOH.
Frozen sections were postfixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 10 minutes, washed in PBS, and acetylated with 0.1 mol/L triethanolamine and 0.25% acetic anhydride for 10 minutes. After dehydration, the sections were incubated in chloroform and then rehydrated in 100% and 95% ethanol. Hybridization was performed as described previously.16 Color detection was amplified by the TSA method.
For a description of primers and methods used for reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction, please see http://atvb.ahajournals.org.
Coculture Assay
Matrigel (growth factor free, 300 µL, Becton
Dickinson) was added to a Transwell chamber insert (12-mm diameter,
0.45-µm pores, Becton-Dickinson) and allowed to gel. HUVECs (70 000
cells per well in medium 199 [M199, Sigma] and 0.5% FCS) were plated
on the gel, and the insert was transferred into the culture plate,
where glioblastoma cells were grown to confluence. For the control
condition, HUVECs were cocultured with medium alone. The
polyclonal anti-Ang1 antibody or nonimmune goat IgG (1:50, Sigma)
was added to the Matrigel before its solidification and to the medium.
After 6 hours, the cells were fixed with 2%
paraformaldehyde and 2.5%
glutaraldehyde in 0.05 mol/L sodium cacodylate, pH
7.4.
Recombinant Ang1 and
Immunoprecipitation
Ang1 was expressed with the baculovirus
system.17 The full human Ang1
cDNA was subcloned into the
BamHI-KpnI
site of the baculovirus vector pBlueBac 4.5 (Invitrogen). The vector
was cotransfected with the linearized baculoviral DNA into
Sf9 insect cells, and the
recombinant virus was plaque-purified and amplified. Characterization
of Ang1 in conditioned media was performed by
immunoblotting.
For immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting, please see http://atvb.ahajournals.org.
Cell Behavior in Tridimensional and
Bidimensional Culture Conditions
HUVECs (30 000 or 70 000 cells per well) were
cultured for 6 hours on 300 µL Matrigel in M199 and 0.5% FCS and
stimulated for 6 hours with 80 ng/mL Ang1 or 10 ng/mL vascular
endothelial growth factor
(VEGF)-A165 (Sigma) or mock supernatant from
insect cells. In selected experiments, Ang1 was neutralized by
overnight incubation at 4°C with anti-Ang1 antibody or with goat IgG
(1:50). Alternatively, HUVECs were starved for 5 hours in M199, 2%
BSA, and 2% FCS and plated in gelatin-coated 12-well tissue culture
plates. Cells (20 000) in 10 µL of starving medium were seeded in
the center of every well; the cells remain confluent at the well center
and have enough space to spread and to migrate toward the margins.
Cells were stimulated for 6 hours with Ang1 (80, 250, and 500 ng/mL),
VEGF-A165 (10 mg/mL), or mock supernatant in
0.5% FCS. Cells were stained as
described.15
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Expression of Ang1 and Ang2 in Astrocytomas
Ang1 and Ang2 expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in specimens ranging from low- to high-grade astrocytomas.
Low-grade astrocytomas contained a higher number of
astrocytes than did normal brain. The vasculature closely resembled
that of a normal brain, as indicated by CD31 staining (please see
online Figure
I at http://atvb.ahajournals.org); blood vessels were
of small caliber without signs of neovascularization and
endothelial hyperplasia. Their number was similar to
that in normal brain (please see online Table I at
http://atvb.ahajournals.org). Necrotic areas were absent. In serial
sections, Ang1 was detected in ECs lining the vessels, whereas it was
nearly absent in the vessels of normal brain. It was also detected in a
few tumor cells scattered in the tissue as well as in a few neuronal
cells of the normal brain. In both tissues, Ang1-positive cells ranged
from 4% to 10%. Ang2 expression was negligible in normal brain and in
large areas of low-grade astrocytomas. Nevertheless, restricted areas
of these tumors contained CD31-positive ECs and GFAP-positive
astrocytes with a weak positivity for Ang2. The number of Ang2-positive
astrocytes ranged from 4% to 11%. In these areas, an extracellular
signal was observed, probably because of diffusion of the protein in
intercellular spaces.
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In anaplastic astrocytomas, cellularity and nuclear polymorphism were increased. Astrocytes still expressed GFAP, mitoses were more frequent, and small necroses appeared. CD31 staining showed endothelial hyperplasia with an abundance of branched blood vessels positive for Ang1 (please see online Figure II and Table I at http://atvb.ahajournals.org). Ang1 expression in astrocytes was comparable to that observed in low-grade astrocytomas. In this tumor, Ang2-expressing astrocytes were not confined to selected areas, as found in low-grade astrocytomas, but they were diffused in the tissue, and their number was up to 12% to 20%. Ang2 was also detected in CD31-positive ECs of numerous vessels.
In glioblastoma multiforme, there was a marked cellular
density and nuclear polymorphism. Astrocytes had different sizes,
round or elongated shapes, and variable GFAP positivity. Mitosis
and necrosis were abundant, as was the vessel number (please see online
Table I). Newly formed vessels were common
(Figure 1A
, 1B, and 1C), together with glomeruloid
proliferation formed by endothelial hyperplastic cells
(Figure 1E). Immunohistochemistry of these specimens showed
that nearly all vessels expressed Ang1 and Ang2, which appeared to be
more abundant than the expression in vessels of low-grade astrocytomas,
most probably a result of EC hyperplasia
(Figure 1B and 1C).
Ang1 and Ang2 mRNA expression was also studied by in situ
hybridization in glioblastoma multiforme.
Figure 1E and 1G (left) shows Ang1 and Ang2 mRNA,
respectively, in ECs of blood vessels. Vessels also expressed Tie2 mRNA
(Figure 1I) as well as the protein (not shown). Tissues
incubated with Ang1 and Ang2 sense RNA probes did not show positive
signals
(Figure 1F and 1H). The number of tumor cells expressing Ang1
was 
10% (not shown) without focal upregulation in selected areas.
In contrast, Ang2 was focally expressed in many tumor cells (range 15%
to 25%), as detected by immunostaining
(Figure 1D) and by in situ hybridization
(Figure 1G, right).
Expression of Ang1 by Glioblastoma Cells
Promotes Angiogenesis of Cocultured ECs
The in vivo analysis suggests that Ang1
is involved in the early stage of vascular activation during
glioblastoma progression. To characterize the effects of Ang1 expressed
and released by tumor cells on EC morphogenesis, a coculture system was
used.
First, endothelial and glioblastoma
cell lines were investigated for the expression of Ang1 and Ang2 mRNA
by using reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction. Two
glioblastoma cell lines (ADF and U87) expressed both angiopoietins, as
demonstrated by the presence of 2 products of 771 and 545 bp, which
correspond to the expected sizes of Ang1 and Ang2 (please see online
Figure III at http://atvb.ahajournals.org). DF glioblastoma cells
expressed only Ang2, whereas LI and U373 cells did not express either.
HUVECs and human microvascular ECs expressed Ang1 and Ang2 transcripts.
All the cell lines tested expressed 3 isoforms of VEGF-A, namely,
VEGF-A121 (452 bp),
VEGF-A165 (584 bp), and
VEGF-A189 (656 bp).
In coculture experiments, glioblastoma cells were seeded in
the lower chamber of a Transwell; in the upper chamber, HUVECs were
plated over a layer of Matrigel. Here, ECs form vascular tubes
connecting cellular nodes, a phenomenon known as in vitro
angiogenesis.18 This assay
allows for in vitro conditions that more closely mimic the in vivo
environment permissive for cell differentiation into capillaries.
HUVECs cultured on Matrigel alone in low serum became elongated and
aligned with each other, and they formed a network of thin cord of
interconnecting cells. Nevertheless, they failed to establish cell-cell
contacts to neighboring cells, giving origin to fragmented tubes.
Moreover, many cells exhibited a small round shape and did not spread
(Figure 2A). HUVECs cocultured with the DF, U373, or LI cell
lines, which do not express Ang1, showed a pattern similar to the
control pattern (data not shown). By contrast, in the presence of ADF
(Figure 2B) or U87 (not shown) glioblastoma cells, which
express VEGF-A and Ang1, ECs migrated throughout the Matrigel surface
to form a better organized meshwork of anastomosing, not fragmented,
cordlike structures compared with the control. The pattern observed
could be induced by a variety of soluble molecules produced by
glioblastoma cells. Therefore, the defined role played by Ang1 in EC
differentiation during the coculture experiments was characterized with
a neutralizing anti-Ang1 antibody. This antibody inhibits Ang1-mediated
Tie2 phosphorylation (please see online Figure IV at
http://atvb.ahajournals.org), and when it was added to the coculture
system, it produced the appearance of a large number of HUVECs with a
cobblestone-like morphology
(Figure 2 C, arrows). Cells failed to align and elongate,
giving origin to less extended cordlike structures with nests composed
of an increased number of cells. Nonimmune goat IgG or anti-Ang1
antibody preadsorbed to the immunizing peptide did not affect EC
organization (not shown). These data suggest that Ang1 influences
reciprocal interactions between EC and favors their transition from
cobblestone-like morphology to capillary-like
structures.
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Ang1 Modifies Cell Behavior in Tridimensional
and Bidimensional Cultures
To test the hypothesis that Ang1 produced by
glioblastoma affects in vitro angiogenesis, the recombinant molecule
was used to evaluate its effect on EC behavior in tridimensional
Matrigel.
Recombinant Ang1 was functionally active, as assessed by its
effect on Tie2 phosphorylation in HUVECs (please see
online Figure IV at http://atvb.ahajournals.org). Cell lysates from
stimulated and unstimulated HUVECs were immunoprecipitated with an
anti-Tie2 polyclonal antibody, and proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE
and blotted with a mAb anti-phosphotyrosine. Ang1 induced Tie2
phosphorylation, and the effect was neutralized by its
preincubation with a specific blocking antibody.
The Ang1 effect on HUVEC organization in Matrigel was
evaluated by plating ECs at low density (30 000 cells) in low serum.
In this condition, they spontaneously formed a network of cordlike
structures
(Figure 2D), and the addition of Ang1 or
VEGF-A165 had no effect on EC differentiation
(data not shown). At higher density (70 000 cells), HUVECs did not
spontaneously form the network of tubes but remained confluent
(Figure 2E). The addition of Ang1 determined the formation of
a well-organized network of cordlike structure
(Figure 2F). This effect was abolished by preincubation of
Ang1 with a neutralizing antibody
(Figure 2G) but not with nonimmune goat IgG (not shown). The
addition of VEGF-A165 had no effect on
endothelial organization, producing a pattern similar
to that of the control condition
(Figure 2H).
A step of the complex effects of Ang1 in inducing in vitro
angiogenesis seems to be the loss of monolayer structure (see
Figure 2E versus 2F) that requires cell separation.
Actually, the loss of cell-cell contact is necessary in the beginning
of in vitro and in vivo
angiogenesis.19 To
demonstrate that cell-cell detachment belongs to the mechanism of in
vitro angiogenesis induced by Ang1, HUVECs were plated at confluence on
gelatin-coated plates
(Figure 3A). After 5 hours, Ang1-stimulated cells appeared
detached from each other and assumed a spread and elongated shape
(Figure 3B). In contrast, cells stimulated with
VEGF-A165 were similar to the control condition
(Figure 3C).
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In the present study, we have combined an in vivo and an in vitro approach to study the role of angiopoietins in neoplastic angiogenesis during astrocytoma progression.
We have first analyzed in vivo the expression of Ang1 and Ang2 in human astrocytomas of different pathological grades. Ang1 expression in normal tissue was very low and involved few neuronal cells and sporadic vessels. In tumor cells, Ang1 was detected in a few astrocytes of low-grade astrocytomas and remained constant during the tumor progression. On the contrary, the intensity of Ang1 staining and the number of positive vessels were increased during progression from low- to high-grade astrocytomas.
Ang2 expression was activated later than Ang1 expression. Whereas in normal brain and in low-grade astrocytomas, the signal was absent, in anaplastic astrocytomas and glioblastoma multiforme, Ang2 was expressed in tumor and vascular ECs. Ang2 expression in tumor cells was different from that of Ang1 in that it involved a higher number of astrocytes grouped in areas with high vessel density. Like Ang1, the intensity of Ang2 staining in ECs and the number of positive vessels were increased.
Our observations are consistent with the role
assigned to angiopoietins in vascular remodeling. Ang1 expression in
most adult quiescent tissue7
and, as shown in the present study, in all phases of glioblastoma
progression suggests that this molecule provides a stabilizing signal
maintaining the integrity of interaction between the newly formed
endothelium and the underlying matrix. Precisely
regulated activation of Ang2 expression, by hypoxia or other
inducers,20 21 in
adult tissue undergoing vascular
remodeling7 and in high-grade
astrocytomas would negate the stabilizing signal and allow localized
disruption of the vessel wall, rendering ECs more accessible to
angiogenic inducers. In glioblastoma, this angiogenic signal most
likely is provided by
VEGF-A.22 The coexpression in
vascular vessels of high levels of both angiopoietins during
astrocytoma progression could explain the abnormal architecture of
vasculature in these tumors. Transgenic overexpression of Ang1 or Ang2
results in the formation of more numerous and larger vessels or in the
establishment of a discontinued vascular network,
respectively.7 23
Notably, human ECs can express both molecules in vitro (see online
Figure III) as well as in
vivo.7 24
Our results disagree with those published by others who studied in the same model the expression of Ang1 and Ang2 by in situ hybridization. They found expression of Ang2 but not of Ang1 in the tumor vessels.24 25 This discrepancy may be based on technical differences. In our experience, only the application of the TSA method26 27 in immunohistochemistry and in in situ hybridization has allowed the detection of Ang1 protein and mRNA. Furthermore, in previous experiments,24 25 570- and 640-bp probes for Ang1 and Ang2, respectively, have been used. In the present study, Ang1 and Ang2 full-length probes were used, a condition that could differentiate the sensitivity of the assay. However, it would be intriguing to speculate that a complex pattern of transcription and translation of angiopoietin genes occurs in glioblastomas, thus explaining the observed discrepancies in a small series of patients.
In Ang1 knockout mice, poor association between ECs and periendothelial cells as well as a lack of EC spreading and flattening are responsible for immature vessels.14 It has been demonstrated that Ang1 promotes sprouting, cell survival, and migration in ECs.10 11 12 Therefore, it can be speculated that Ang1 not only plays a role in the maintaining of interactions between ECs and support cells but also seems to have a direct effect on EC behavior during vascular remodeling.
To define the role of Ang1 secreted by tumor cells in neoplastic angiogenesis, we have identified a number of Ang1-expressing glioblastoma cell lines and have set up an in vitro coculture system with ECs. In the presence of Ang1-expressing glioblastoma cells, ECs appeared markedly flattened and migrated throughout the Matrigel surface, forming a well-organized network of anastomosing, not fragmented, cordlike structures. The formation of such tubular structures is a very complex process that involves the combined effects on cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion, proteolytic remodeling of the matrix and migration. The use of a blocking anti-Ang1 antibody predominantly affected cell-cell adhesion and migration. Actually, ECs remained grouped, failing to align and elongate and giving origin to less extended cordlike structure and nests constituted by an increased number of cells.
In the Matrigel system, the use of recombinant Ang1 confirms this scenario. The formation of capillary-like structures by ECs plated at high concentration was reduced in the absence of Ang1. As seen in the coculture experiments, the addition of Ang1 favors EC separation and reorganization of the cell monolayer into cordlike structures. This is also supported by the observation that in a bidimensional culture, Ang1 induces the spreading of the EC monolayer.
These data extend the biological role of Ang1 in regulating
the reciprocal interaction between ECs not only in stabilized vessels
but also at the beginning of an angiogenic event, favoring the loss of
cell-cell contacts and the EC movement toward each other, which are
required for fusion into capillary structures. These effects are
contradictory and suggest that the molecular events driving them are
extremely complex and not completely clarified. Along this line, it has
been demonstrated that the association of VEGF receptor 2 with
vß3 integrin or with
vascular-endothelial cadherin differentiates the
biological response of ECs to the ligand, with the former being the
association favorable for migration and the latter being favorable for
survival.28 29
Indeed, the cooperation with other membrane proteins may discriminate
the biological responses (ie, stabilization of vessel wall versus loss
of cell-cell contacts) triggered by the Ang1/Tie2
pathway.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by C.N.R. (P.F. Finalizzato Biotecnologie), A.I.R.C., ISS (AIDS projects 40B.19 and 30B.9), M.U.R.S.T. (60% and Programmi di Ricerca di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale, 1999 to 2000), and Regione Piemonte. E.A. was supported by a "Gruppo di Cooperazione in Cancerologia-Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Torino"; I.C., by "Comitato Regionale Piemontese Gigi Ghirotti"; and S.C.P., by "Centro Margherita Magenes," University of Milan.
Received November 15, 1999; accepted August 3, 2000.
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