© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Atherosclerosis and Lipoproteins |
Detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae–Reactive T Lymphocytes in Human Atherosclerotic Plaques of Carotid Artery
From the Department of Surgery, Oulu University Hospital (M.M., T.J.), National Public Health Institute, Department of Oulu (A.L., P.S., H.-M.S.), and Department of Microbiology, University of Oulu (R.K.), Oulu, Finland; the Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology (M.L.) and the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology (J.P.), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; the Department of Internal Medicine (J.J.), Kainuu Central Hospital, Kajaani, Finland; and the Department of Microbiology (R.P.M.), Montana State University, Bozeman.
Correspondence to Dr Tatu Juvonen, Department of Surgery, Oulu University Hospital, 90220 Oulu, Finland. E-mail tatu.juvonen{at}oulu.fi
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Abstract—Linkage between Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and atherosclerosis has been confirmed in several studies, but the precise role of this organism in the disease process is not known. We investigated the relation and reactivity of T lymphocytes of human carotid plaques to C pneumoniae antigens. Tissue specimens were obtained from 17 patients who underwent carotid endarterectomy. Immunohistological staining and/or in situ hybridization revealed the presence of C pneumoniae in 11 (64%) of the 17 of the cases. Inflammatory infiltration seen in the vessel walls consisted primarily of CD45RO+ T-memory lymphocytes (median 80%, range 50% to 90%), whereas CD20+ B cells and monocytes were in minor proportion. In vivo activated T lymphocytes were propagated from the specimens with interleukin-2, and the antigen specificity of the established T-cell lines (TLLs) was analyzed against C pneumoniae elementary body antigen. TLLs were established from all 17 carotid tissues but none from the control specimens of ascending aorta. C pneumoniae was recognized as a specific T-cell–stimulating antigen in 7 (41%) of 17 cases. Further analyses of the C pneumoniae–reactive TLLs showed that chlamydial 60-kDa heat-shock protein induced specific proliferation in 5 (71%) of 7 cases and revealed 2 haplotype (DRB1*1502 and DQB1*06) binding motifs in human 60-kDa heat-shock protein. C pneumoniae was identified as a specific microbial antigen recognized by 41% of TLLs propagated from in vivo activated plaque T cells. Our results suggests that cell-mediated immunity to C pneumoniae plays a role in the atherosclerotic process and that this response may involve autoimmunity.
Key Words: atherosclerosis • Chlamydia pneumoniae • activated T cells
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Introduction |
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Atherosclerotic plaque is characterized as a chronic inflammatory condition involving the interaction of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, macrophages, and lymphocytes.1 Secretion of inflammatory cytokines and a broad spectrum of oxidative and proteolytic substances by macrophages contributes to the plaque size and the disease process. Macrophages and T lymphocytes are found in the lesions at an early stage of the disease,2 3 but the biological role of intralesional T lymphocytes is not defined. The expression of interleukin-2 receptor3 and various costimulatory molecules4 on a small number of these T cells indicates recent local contact with a specific antigen and active involvement of the inflammatory reaction in the disease process. Although target antigens for the in vivo activated T lymphocytes are not known, bacterial and viral infections have recently received considerable attention in the etiopathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
Several seroepidemiological studies associate Chlamydia
pneumoniae with atherosclerosis and promote the
organism as a major etiopathological factor of
atherosclerosis.5 6 C
pneumoniae is an obligate intracellular pathogen that infects
several different cell types important in the pathogenesis of
atherogenesis, including monocytes and
macrophages.5 Macrophages are thought
to spread infection from the respiratory tract to other organ
systems.7 Although human monocytes can restrict
development of infectious progeny of C pneumoniae, we have
recently demonstrated that the organism remains
metabolically active for at least 10 days in monocytes
infected in vitro and stimulates the proliferation of T
cells.8 C pneumoniae antigen induces
secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis
factor-
, interleukin [IL]-1, and interferon-
) from
monocytes5 9 and T cells10 in vitro,
suggesting a possible immunopathogenetic link between the organism and
atherosclerosis.
To study the relation of acquired immunity to C pneumoniae and atherosclerosis, we established T-cell lines (TLLs) from in vivo activated lymphocytes of carotid atheroma by using T-cell growth factor and IL-2 and analyzed their reactivity to chlamydial antigens and to peptides from the human 60-kDa heat-shock protein (HSP60).
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Methods |
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Atherosclerotic specimens of the carotid artery were obtained from 17 consecutive male patients, aged 64±8 (mean±SEM) years, undergoing carotid endarterectomy at Oulu University Hospital. The indication for surgery was transient ischemic attack, amaurosis fugax, or hemiplegia. The stenotic lesion was examined before surgery by duplex ultrasonography imaging and by carotid angiography, with the degree of carotid stenosis varying from 80% to 95%. As control specimens, cylinder-shaped pieces (5 mm in diameter) from macroscopically normal ascending aorta were obtained from 6 male patients aged 69±10 (mean±SEM) years undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery for treatment of severe coronary heart disease.
A part of each tissue specimen was immediately placed in RPMI 1640 tissue culture medium (Sigma Chemical Co) supplemented with glutamine and antibiotics and transported to the laboratory. Adjacent slices were immersed in 10% phosphate-buffered formalin and liquid nitrogen for immunohistochemical studies. Peripheral blood samples were drawn for immunologic studies before the surgery. On the basis of carefully performed clinical examinations, the patients had no immune diseases, inflammatory diseases, or malignancies and were free of acute infections at the time of operation.
The study protocol was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu.
Immunocytochemistry
Immunohistochemical analyses of formalin-fixed
paraffin-embedded tissues were performed by the
streptavidin-biotin-peroxidase method with use of a Vectastain ABC kit
(Vector Laboratories) or a Histostain SP kit (Zymed) and
diaminobenzidine or aminoethylcarbazole as substrates, respectively.
Hematoxylin was used as a counterstain, and normal aorta and myometrium
served as negative control tissues.
C pneumoniae and HSP60 antigens were detected in the tissues by using specific monoclonal antibodies, RR 402 (Washington Research Foundation) and ML-30 (kindly provided by Prof J. Ivanyi, Medical Research Council, London, UK), for C pneumoniae and HSP60 immunostaining, respectively. ML-30 antibody was raised against Mycobacterium tuberculosis HSP60 protein, and its epitope spans over a highly conserved region of bacterial and human HSP60 corresponding to the M tuberculosis sequence, 286MLQDMAILTGGQV298. We have previously shown that ML-30 antibody also recognizes the sequence 278APGFGDRRKAMLEDIAILTGGQL300 on chlamydial HSP60 (CHSP60).11
Monoclonal antibodies to human T and B cells (CD45RO and CD20, BioGenex) were used for immunophenotyping of the lymphocyte population. The population of mononuclear lymphocytes was further subtyped by immunostaining frozen tissue sections with CD4 and CD8 antibodies (DAKO) and FITC-conjugated goat anti-mouse secondary antibody (DAKO). Macrophages, plasma cells, and neutrophils were counted in routine hematoxylin and eosin stainings. The number of different cell types was counted in 10 high-power fields (x200) per sample and is expressed as percentages of total cell number.
In Situ Hybridization
In situ hybridization was performed in formalin-fixed tissue
sections placed on silane-coated slides, as previously described by
Alakärppä et al,12 with 463-kb
digoxigenin–labeled C pneumoniae 16S rRNA fragment used
as a probe.
Antigens and Peptides
Purified and formalin-killed C pneumoniae elementary
body (EB) antigen13 was used for T-cell propagation
in a final concentration of 0.3 µg/mL and for antigen specificity
tests of the TLLs in 0.3 to 0.03 µg/mL. CHSP60 recombinant protein
(20 to 2 µg/mL), Chlamydia trachomatis EB antigen (0.3
µg/mL), and tetanus toxoid (0.3 µg/mL, National Public Health
Institute) were used as control antigens in the antigen-specificity
tests of the TLLs.
Epitope scanning of HSP60-reactive T cells involved 71 overlapping peptides (length was 15 amino acids each, overlapping the neighboring peptides by 7 or 8 amino acids) representing the total human HSP60 protein. The peptides were synthesized by Fmoc chemistry with use of a cleavable peptide kit (Chiron Microtopes Ltd, Ptg), as described by Reece et al14 and Lehtinen et al.15
T-Cell Lines
TLLs were generated from the carotid atheroma tissue
specimens according to Halme et al16 as follows:
Contaminating peripheral blood was washed from the tissue
by vigorous shaking with sterile water for 20 seconds, followed by 3
rinses with RPMI 1640 medium. Tissue was minced into small pieces
(2x2 mm) and placed on a plastic Petri dish (Corning) in 10 mL of
RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with glutamine, 20 µg/mL streptomycin,
and 10% heat-inactivated human AB serum (Finnish Red
Cross). In vivo activated T cells expressing IL-2 receptors
were propagated by adding 10% (vol/vol) IL-2 (Biotest) into the
culture medium. The cultures were incubated without antigen in a
humidified 5% CO2 atmosphere at 37°C for 10
days. Half of the RPMI 1640 medium containing IL-2 was changed every
third day. Thereafter, the growing lymphocytes were harvested from the
Petri dish, washed once with RPMI 1640 (1600 rpm, 10 minutes), and
transferred onto 24-well tissue culture plates (Sterilin Ltd) and
further augmented by stimulation with C pneumoniae EB
antigen (0.3 µg/mL) in the presence of irradiated autologous
peripheral blood mononuclear lymphocytes (PBLs,
106 cells per well) as antigen-presenting
cells and IL-2–containing culture medium in a total volume of 1
mL.16 Stimulation for the expanding TLLs was
repeated as described above 2 to 3 times over periods of 10 days to
achieve a cell number that was sufficient to perform
antigen-specificity tests. IL-2 was added no later than 4 days before
the specificity test. PBLs were isolated from heparinized blood by
Ficoll-Paque (Pharmacia Biotech) density gradient
centrifugation and suspended in RPMI-1640/AB medium.
The PBLs that were used as antigen-presenting cells were stored in
the presence of 60% AB serum and 7.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (MERCK) at
-150°C for later use.
Continuously growing TLLs were derived also from in vivo activated lymphocytes (106 cells) from peripheral blood by use of the protocol described above.
TLL Analyses
The antigen specificity of the TLLs was tested by culturing
20 000 cells in triplicate in 96-well round-bottomed microtiter plates
(Sterilin Ltd) in the presence of 20 000 irradiated autologous PBLs
and antigen suspended in RPMI 1640 supplemented with 10% AB serum in a
total volume of 200 µL. Cultures were incubated in humidified 5%
CO2 at 37°C for 72 hours as described by Halme
et al.16 [Methyl-3H]Thymidine (0.2
Ci per well, Amersham Life Sciences) was added to the wells for the
last 18 hours. The cells were harvested from each well on
nitrocellulose filters (Wallac) with the use of an automatic cell
harvester (Skatron AS), and the lymphocyte proliferation responses were
measured in counts per minute of radioactivity incorporated into the
proliferating cells by use of a liquid scintillation counter
(Wallac).
The results are expressed as mean counts per minute or as stimulation indexes (SIs, the ratio of counts per minute in the presence of antigen to the counts per minute in its absence) calculated from triplicate cultures.
For the HLA restriction analysis, purified monoclonal antibody to the HLA-DR (L243), HLA-DQ (SPVL3), or HLA class I (W6/32) molecule was added (5 to 90 µg/mL) to the microtiter plates with autologous antigen-presenting cells. C pneumoniae EB antigen and TLL cells were added, and the cultures were incubated as described above.
Surface antigens of the TLLs were stained by use of FITC-conjugated anti-CD4 and -CD8 monoclonal antibodies (Caltag Laboratory) for immunofluorescence flow cytometric analysis by FACScan (Becton Dickinson and Co).
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Results |
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Histology
Hematoxylin and eosin staining of carotid artery walls showed severe atherosclerosis with foam cells, extracellular accumulation of lipids, and calcification. The numbers of inflammatory cells in the specimens varied markedly, ranging from <10 to >500 cells per 10 high-power fields. Immunophenotyping of the lymphocytes showed that the infiltrate consisted mainly of CD45RO+ T-memory cells (median 80%, range 50% to 90%), whereas CD20+ B cells were <5% (range 0% to 30%). Immunofluorescence staining showed the majority (70%) of T cells to be CD4 positive.
Twenty percent of the cells were macrophages (10% to 30%), and 10% were plasma cells (5% to 20%), as counted by hematoxylin and eosin staining; neutrophils were found only occasionally. Only occasional lymphocytes were observed by hematoxylin and eosin staining of the control specimens (<5 cells per 10 high-power fields). They did not involve in vivo activated T cells because no lymphocyte propagation was found when the IL-2–containing medium was used.
Eleven (65%) of the 17 specimens were positive for C
pneumoniae immunostaining by using RR402
monoclonal antibody (Table 1
). Of
these, 3 were also found positive for C pneumoniae by in
situ hybridization. Expression of HSP60 protein was detected in 14
(82%) of the 17 specimens by immunohistochemistry with the use of ML30
antibody (recognizes endogenous and chlamydial
protein).
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T-Cell Specificity to C pneumoniae
Using IL-2–containing medium without antigen, we were able
to propagate lymphocytes from all 17 carotid specimens and PBL cultures
but none from the 6 nonatherosclerotic specimens. The cells (range of
cell number 3x104 to
5x105) were augmented by stimulation with
C pneumoniae antigen. The antigen-specificity test was
performed thereafter, and C pneumoniae was shown to induce a
positive (SI >3) proliferative response in 7 (41%) of the 17 TLLs
derived from the carotid tissue (Figure 1), and 3 of those 7 specimens were
C pneumoniae positive by immunochemistry (Table 1
).
C pneumoniae antigen was recognized by the TLLs derived from
tissue and peripheral blood in 4 cases, and in 2 cases, the
antigen was recognized by only the TLLs derived from blood, indicating
that in vivo activated cells were also circulating in the
blood. The remainder of the established TLLs (10 cases) consisted of
IL-2–dependent cells, showing no specificity to C
pneumoniae antigen (SI <3). Median response to PHA mitogen was
10 506 cpm (interquartile range 5408 to 13 774), indicating that each
TLL consisted of viable lymphocytes.
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Proliferative responses of the 7 C
pneumoniae–specific carotid TLLs were strong in the presence of
the whole C pneumoniae EB antigen and differed markedly from
the responses of the 10 C pneumoniae nonspecific TLLs (Table 2). C trachomatis EB antigen
was recognized by 4 of 7 C pneumoniae–specific TLLs, but
the responses were lower than responses to C pneumoniae EB
antigen. The antigen specificity of the proliferating TLLs was limited
to Chlamydia, because stimulation of the cells with tetanus
toxoid did not induce a positive response in any of the TLLs (Table 2).
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Phenotype of the TLLs and Dependence of HLA
Molecules
Surface antigen analyses of the C
pneumoniae–specific TLLs revealed that >96% of the cells were
CD4 positive and that <5% were CD8 positive. Antigen
presentation to the specific T cells was primarily
dependent on the HLA-DR molecule in 2 of 3 and on the HLA-DQ molecule
in 1 of the 3 TLLs tested (Figure 2).
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), HLA-DQ
(
), or class I (
) were used for blocking in a final concentration
of 5 µg/mL (1), 60 µg/mL (2), or 90 µg/mL (3) in the T-cell
cultures in the presence of antigen-presenting cells and C
pneumoniae antigen (0.3 µg/mL).
T-Cell Reactivity to HSP60 Proteins
The antigen specificity of the 7 C pneumoniae–reactive
carotid TLLs was further analyzed against the HSP60 protein of
C trachomatis (CHSP60). The CHSP60 protein was found to
induce a positive response (SI >3) in 5 of the 7 C
pneumoniae–specific TLLs. The proliferative response of the TLLs
was dependent on the concentration of the CHSP60 protein and was
comparable to the responses stimulated by the C pneumoniae
EB antigen (Figure 3).
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The hypothesis that immune responses to CHSP60 may be directed at
autologous protein was evaluated by testing the reactivity of the
CHSP60-specific TLLs against 72 overlapping 15-mer peptides derived
from the amino acid sequence of human HSP60. One of the 5
CHSP60-reactive TLLs (HLA-DRB1*1301, -1501, and -DQB1*06) that was
dependent on the HLA-DQ molecule (Figure 2) showed positive
T-cell responses (SI >3) to 3 peptides, ie, amino acids 9 to 23, 170
to 184, and 305 to 319 (Figure 4).
Sequences of the recognized peptides are conserved between the human
HSP60 and CHSP60, but some differences disturbing the major
histocompatibility complex class II binding motifs of the chlamydial
peptides can be seen when these sequences are compared with the
corresponding sequences on human HSP60 (Table 3).
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Discussion |
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In the present study, we identified C pneumoniae as a microbial antigen recognized by TLLs propagated from in vivo activated T lymphocytes isolated from atherosclerotic plaque. Collectively, 41% of the established TLLs, each representing T cells from plaques of one patient, reacted against C pneumoniae EB antigen. Our results suggest that C pneumoniae, which is commonly detected in atherosclerotic plaque of the carotid and coronary arteries,5 6 may cause T-cell activation and accumulation and thus contributes to the maintenance of the inflammatory reaction in atherogenesis. In addition, most (5 of 7) of the C pneumoniae–reactive TLLs also responded to CHSP60. Our results and those of Kol et al9 suggest a possible role for HSP60 in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
The presence of C pneumoniae–reactive T cells in atherosclerotic carotid artery walls was not consistent with detection of chlamydial antigen and/or DNA in the tissue. Only 3 lesions containing C pneumoniae–reactive T cells were positive by immunohistochemistry for Chlamydiae. Similar situations have been observed in atherosclerotic lesions,17 18 19 ie, the presence of specific serum antibodies in the absence of C pneumoniae antigen or DNA. These discrepancies might result from an active anti-chlamydial immune response, which results in decreased replication of the organisms in the atherosclerotic tissue, or from the limited amount of tissue that can be analyzed histologically. Alternatively, activation of C pneumoniae–reactive T cells in the absence of detectable C pneumoniae antigen in the plaques may be sustained by cross-reactive antigens, such as heat-shock proteins.
The apparent lack of antigen-specific T cells in the 8 C pneumoniae–positive lesions may also result from a low level of antigen, resulting in few activated T cells in the atherosclerotic plaques,3 4 which were not subsequently enriched by our methodology. The former correlates with the occasional lack of serum antibodies in the presence of C pneumoniae antigen in atheromas, which Kuo et al18 postulated to be partly due to an insufficient level of the chlamydial antigen in atheromas for stimulating antibody secretion. A deficient immune mechanism or relative immune suppression in some patients is also a possibility. The ability of C pneumoniae to infect nonprofessional phagocytic cells, such as endothelial cells or smooth muscle cells,5 6 which do not normally express HLA class II molecules and are therefore ineffective in presenting antigen to immune cells, may also explain the inability of establishing TLLs from some patients.
In spite of the probable involvement of C pneumoniae antigen in the inflammatory reaction in more than one third of human atheromas, the role for other immunogenic agents, especially in progressed disease, should not be underestimated. Accordingly, Stemme et al20 have demonstrated that atherosclerotic plaque contains T cells showing immune specificity for oxidized LDL. In addition, high levels of HSP60-specific antibodies,21 which under certain conditions contribute to cytotoxic lysis of macrophages and the subsequent necrosis of the lesions,22 have been regarded as a sign of antibody-mediated autoimmune mechanisms in atherosclerosis. Although HSP60-targeted cellular mechanisms seem to play a role in experimental atherogenesis in rabbits,23 the role of HSP60-reactive T cells in humans has not been described. In the present study, the majority of C pneumoniae–reactive atheroma-derived TLLs responded to the CHSP60, suggesting that the immune response to CHSP60 may play a role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
HSP60 belongs to a highly conserved protein family that is constitutively expressed in most eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. However, during cellular stress, such as heat shock, nutrition deprivation, infection, or exposure to oxygen radicals and cytokines, HSP60 expression is increased. CHSP60 is expressed in high concentrations especially during persistent infection24 and has been detected in atherosclerotic vessel walls.9 Enhanced secretion of microbial HSP60 during infection makes it an obvious target for the host immune response and, at the same time, may break the tolerance and trigger nonregulated immune responses directed to autologous epitopes on the HSP60 protein.25 The colocalization of endogenous and CHSP60 in about half of the human atheroma specimens9 might set the stage for such reactions. However, activation of T lymphocytes against the CHSP60 does not necessarily lead to autoreactive responses, because in the present study, only 1 of the 5 CHSP60-reactive TLLs responded also to peptides representing human HSP60. Interestingly, this TLL differed from other TLLs in the antigen presentation that was restricted to the HLA-DQ molecule.
We found 3 peptide regions on human HSP60 that were recognized by CHSP60-reactive TLLs. One of the epitopes, amino acid 170LGVITVKDGKTLNDE184, partially overlaps an atherosclerotic specific B-cell epitope, 173NTFGLDLEL187, of mycobacterial HSP60.26 T-helper and B-cell epitopes are often located close together. It is important to note that the former peptide also contains DRB1*1501 (170LGVITVKDGK179) and DQB1*06 (170LGVITVKDG178 and 306TLNLEDV313) binding motifs,27 28 which may have been used by the autologous antigen-presenting cells as well as a general T-cell receptor binding motif, 171GVIT174.29 Although the T-cell epitope study is only preliminary, it suggests that CHSP60-reactive T cells recognized 2 epitopes that are found on human HSP60.
Atherosclerosis is a multifactorial disease involving several risk factors and risk markers, but its etiopathogenesis is still largely unknown. It has been acknowledged in recent years that immune mechanisms and inflammation play a role in the progression of disease, and the possibility of an infectious etiology of atherosclerosis has received increasing attention. Although the causal link between C pneumoniae infection and the development of atherosclerosis continues to be debated, our results suggest that C pneumoniae is a specific microbial antigen that causes atherosclerotic T cells to proliferate. This cell-mediated immune response to Chlamydia, which may also involve autoimmune responses generated by human HSP60, may play a role in mediating the inflammatory process in atherosclerotic plaques.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by grants from Oulu University Hospital, the Academy of Finland, the University of Helsinki University Hospital Research Funds (TYH0015), and the Maud Kuistila Memorial Fund, Finland, and in part by National Institutes of Health grant AI-38991. We are grateful to Marja Siitonen for excellent technical assistance.
Received August 30, 1999; accepted November 23, 1999.
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 G Liuzzo, G Giubilato, and M Pinnelli T cells and cytokines in atherogenesis Lupus, September 1, 2005; 14(9): 732 - 735. [Abstract] [PDF]
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 M. Benagiano, M. M. D'Elios, A. Amedei, A. Azzurri, R. van der Zee, A. Ciervo, G. Rombola, S. Romagnani, A. Cassone, and G. Del Prete Human 60-kDa Heat Shock Protein Is a Target Autoantigen of T Cells Derived from Atherosclerotic Plaques J. Immunol., May 15, 2005; 174(10): 6509 - 6517. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. M. Ieven and V. Y. Hoymans Involvement of Chlamydia pneumoniae in Atherosclerosis: More Evidence for Lack of Evidence J. Clin. Microbiol., January 1, 2005; 43(1): 19 - 24. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 B. Zal, J. C. Kaski, G. Arno, J. P. Akiyu, Q. Xu, D. Cole, M. Whelan, N. Russell, J. A. Madrigal, I. A. Dodi, et al. Heat-Shock Protein 60-Reactive CD4+CD28null T Cells in Patients With Acute Coronary Syndromes Circulation, March 16, 2004; 109(10): 1230 - 1235. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Sander, K. Winbeck, J. Klingelhofer, T. Etgen, and B. Conrad Progression of Early Carotid Atherosclerosis Is Only Temporarily Reduced After Antibiotic Treatment of Chlamydia pneumoniae Seropositivity Circulation, March 2, 2004; 109(8): 1010 - 1015. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. J de Boer, A. E Becker, and A. C van der Wal T lymphocytes in atherogenesis--functional aspects and antigenic repertoire Cardiovasc Res, October 15, 2003; 60(1): 78 - 86. [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. J. Lindsberg and A. J. Grau Inflammation and Infections as Risk Factors for Ischemic Stroke Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2518 - 2532. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Perschinka, M. Mayr, G. Millonig, C. Mayerl, R. van der Zee, S. G. Morrison, R. P. Morrison, Q. Xu, and G. Wick Cross-Reactive B-Cell Epitopes of Microbial and Human Heat Shock Protein 60/65 in Atherosclerosis Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., June 1, 2003; 23(6): 1060 - 1065. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Benagiano, A. Azzurri, A. Ciervo, A. Amedei, C. Tamburini, M. Ferrari, J. L. Telford, C. T. Baldari, S. Romagnani, A. Cassone, et al. T helper type 1 lymphocytes drive inflammation in human atherosclerotic lesions PNAS, May 27, 2003; 100(11): 6658 - 6663. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. V. Kalayoglu, P. Libby, and G. I. Byrne Chlamydia pneumoniae as an Emerging Risk Factor in Cardiovascular Disease JAMA, December 4, 2002; 288(21): 2724 - 2731. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. Axisa, I. M. Loftus, A. R. Naylor, S. Goodall, L. Jones, P. R.F. Bell, M. M. Thompson, and C. Napoli Prospective, Randomized, Double-Blind Trial Investigating the Effect of Doxycycline on Matrix Metalloproteinase Expression Within Atherosclerotic Carotid Plaques * Editorial Comment Stroke, December 1, 2002; 33(12): 2858 - 2864. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F.-J. Neumann Chlamydia pneumoniae-Atherosclerosis Link: A Sound Concept in Search for Clinical Relevance Circulation, November 5, 2002; 106(19): 2414 - 2416. [Full Text] [PDF]
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R Ezzahiri, H.J.M.G Nelissen-Vrancken, H.A.J.M Kurvers, F.R.M Stassen, I Vliegen, G.E.L.M Grauls, M.M.L van Pul, P.J.E.H.M Kitslaar, and C.A Bruggeman Chlamydophila pneumoniae (Chlamydia pneumoniae) accelerates the formation of complex atherosclerotic lesions in Apo E3-Leiden mice Cardiovasc Res, November 1, 2002; 56(2): 269 - 276. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Q. Xu Role of Heat Shock Proteins in Atherosclerosis Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., October 1, 2002; 22(10): 1547 - 1559. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. Stollberger and J. Finsterer Role of Infectious and Immune Factors in Coronary and Cerebrovascular Arteriosclerosis Clin. Vaccine Immunol., March 1, 2002; 9(2): 207 - 215. [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Huittinen, M. Leinonen, L. Tenkanen, M. Manttari, H. Virkkunen, T. Pitkanen, E. Wahlstrom, T. Palosuo, V. Manninen, and P. Saikku Autoimmunity to Human Heat Shock Protein 60, Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection, and Inflammation in Predicting Coronary Risk Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., March 1, 2002; 22(3): 431 - 437. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. Vink, A. H. Schoneveld, W. Richard, D. P. V. de Kleijn, E. Falk, C. Borst, and G. Pasterkamp Plaque burden, arterial remodeling and plaque vulnerability: determined by systemic factors? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., September 1, 2001; 38(3): 718 - 723. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. G. Nadareishvili, D. E. Koziol, B. Szekely, C. Ruetzler, R. LaBiche, R. McCarron, T. J. DeGraba, and S. Jander Increased CD8+ T Cells Associated With Chlamydia pneumoniae in Symptomatic Carotid Plaque Editorial Comment Stroke, September 1, 2001; 32(9): 1966 - 1972. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 D. M. Wuttge, P. Eriksson, A. Sirsjo, G. K. Hansson, and S. Stemme Expression of Interleukin-15 in Mouse and Human Atherosclerotic Lesions Am. J. Pathol., August 1, 2001; 159(2): 417 - 423. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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S. Stemme Plaque T-Cell Activity : Not So Specific? Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., July 1, 2001; 21(7): 1099 - 1101. [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. A. Houtkamp, A. C. van der Wal, O. J. de Boer, C. M. van der Loos, P. A. J. de Boer, A. F. M. Moorman, and A. E. Becker Interleukin-15 Expression in Atherosclerotic Plaques : An Alternative Pathway for T-Cell Activation in Atherosclerosis? Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., July 1, 2001; 21(7): 1208 - 1213. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Sander, K. Winbeck, J. Klingelhofer, T. Etgen, and B. Conrad Enhanced Progression of Early Carotid Atherosclerosis Is Related to Chlamydia pneumoniae (Taiwan Acute Respiratory) Seropositivity Circulation, March 13, 2001; 103(10): 1390 - 1395. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. G. J. Gibbs, M. Sian, A. W. M. Mitchell, R. M. Greenhalgh, A. H. Davies, and N. Carey Chlamydia pneumoniae Does Not Influence Atherosclerotic Plaque Behavior in Patients With Established Carotid Artery Stenosis Stroke, December 1, 2000; 31(12): 2930 - 2935. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. J. de Boer, A. C. van der Wal, M. A. Houtkamp, J. M. Ossewaarde, P. Teeling, and A. E. Becker Unstable atherosclerotic plaques contain T-cells that respond to Chlamydia pneumoniae Cardiovasc Res, December 1, 2000; 48(3): 402 - 408. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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