This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Haffner, S. M. Articles by Mykkänen, L. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Haffner, S. M. Articles by Mykkänen, L. Pubmed/NCBI databases Compound via MeSH Substance via MeSH Related Collections Chronic ischemic heart disease Epidemiology Lipids

(Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 1999;19:2234-2240.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.

Atherosclerosis and Lipoproteins

LDL Size in African Americans, Hispanics, and Non-Hispanic Whites

The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study

Steven M. Haffner; Ralph D'Agostino, Jr; David Goff; Barbara Howard; Andreas Festa; Mohammed F. Saad; Leena Mykkänen

From the Department of Medicine (S.M.H., A.F., L.M.), University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio; the Department of Public Health Sciences (R.D.A., D.G.), Bowman Gray School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC; the Medlantic Research Institute (B.H.), Washington, DC; and the Department of Medicine (M.F.S.), UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, Calif.

Correspondence and reprint requests to Steven M. Haffner, MD, Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr, San Antonio, TX 78284-7873.

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Abstract—The prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and atherosclerosis varies among several minority ethnic groups in the United States. Recently, small, dense low density lipoprotein (LDL) particle size has been recognized as a risk factor for CVD. We examined LDL size as a possible explanation for differences in CVD rates in 1571 subjects from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS), a multiethnic study of insulin resistance and cardiovascular risk factors. LDL size (Å) was significantly different by ethnic group (African Americans 262.1±0.6, Hispanics 257.6±0.6, and non-Hispanic whites 259.2±0.4, P<0.001). Ethnic differences in LDL size continued to be statistically significant after adjustment for upper body adiposity, insulin resistance, and glucose tolerance status. However, after further adjustment for other cardiovascular risk factors, especially ethnic differences in triglyceride and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels, the ethnic differences in LDL size were markedly attenuated and in general no longer statistically significant. The relation of triglyceride, HDL cholesterol, insulin resistance, and adiposity to LDL size in each ethnic group was similar. LDL size differs by ethnic group, which is independent of obesity or insulin resistance. These ethnic differences appear to be due to ethnic variations in dyslipidemia (especially differences in triglyceride levels); ethnic differences in LDL size are not consistent with previously reported ethnic dissimilarities in CVD or atherosclerosis.

Key Words: Hispanics • non-Hispanic whites • African Americans • LDL size • coronary heart disease • insulin resistance

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Differences in the prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) have been reported in the United States between ethnic groups. Hispanics have been reported to have rates of CHD^{1 2 3 4 5} or CVD⁶ similar to or lower than those of non-Hispanic whites, although a few recent reports have not supported this position.^{7 8 9} African Americans have increased CVD relative to non-Hispanic whites.^{10 11 12} We have reported recently that African Americans have a significantly greater intima-media wall thickness than do non-Hispanic whites in the common carotid artery in nondiabetic subjects in the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS).¹³ In the IRAS, ethnic differences in the common carotid artery intima-media wall thickness could not be explained by conventional cardiovascular risk factors. (No ethnic differences were observed in internal carotid artery wall thickness in the IRAS.¹³ )

Considerable information has been gathered on cardiovascular risk factors to explain ethnic differences in CVD. Hispanics have increased obesity,¹⁴ higher triglyceride and lower HDL cholesterol levels,^{15 16} and an increased prevalence^{17 18} and incidence¹⁹ of type 2 diabetes. The above ethnic differences in cardiovascular risk factors suggest a higher risk of CVD in Hispanics. However, Hispanics have been reported to have a lower prevalence of hypertension than do non-Hispanic whites.^{20 21} The risk of CVD predicted from the Framingham model is higher in Hispanics than in non-Hispanic whites.²¹ African Americans have an increased prevalence of both hypertension²² and type 2 diabetes^{23 24} relative to non-Hispanic whites, which might increase the risk of CVD in the former group. In contrast, African Americans have lower levels of triglyceride and higher levels of HDL cholesterol (especially in males) than do non-Hispanic whites.^{25 26}

Increased levels of small, dense LDL (LDL subgroup pattern B) have been identified as a risk factor for the prevalence^{27 28 29 30 31} and incidence^{32 33 34} of CHD. The epidemiological correlates of small, dense LDL include increased triglyceride and decreased HDL cholesterol levels, male sex, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.^{29 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43} Of these variables, decreased HDL and especially increased triglyceride levels are the strongest predictors of small, dense LDL. We have previously shown that Mexican Americans have increased small, dense LDL relative to non-Hispanic whites⁴¹ in the San Antonio Heart Study, but these findings were no longer significant after adjustment for the greater dyslipidemia in Mexican Americans (increased triglyceride and decreased HDL cholesterol levels).

LDL size has not been previously examined in African Americans. On the basis of previous studies showing increased HDL cholesterol and decreased triglyceride levels relative to non-Hispanic whites^{25 26} in African Americans, one might expect a larger LDL size (less atherogenic) in the latter group. However, considering the greater obesity and diabetes^{23 24} and increased insulin resistance⁴⁴ in African Americans, the effects of which might decrease LDL size, it is difficult to predict whether LDL size would be smaller or larger in African Americans compared with non-Hispanic whites.

In this report, we examine LDL size in a triethnic population (African Americans, Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites) in the IRAS.⁴⁵ We also examine whether the relation of traditional correlates of LDL size (hyperinsulinemia, obesity, and dyslipidemia) affect LDL size in a similar fashion across ethnic groups.

	Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
A detailed description of the design and methods of the IRAS has been published.⁴⁵ In brief, this study was conducted at 4 centers: Oakland and Los Angeles, Calif; San Antonio, Tex; and San Luis Valley, Colo. Diabetic subjects receiving insulin were not eligible for the IRAS. Diabetic subjects with a fasting glucose level 300 mg/dL (16.7 mmol/L) were also excluded.

A total of 1625 individuals participated in the IRAS (56% women).⁴⁵ Individuals with normal glucose tolerance composed the largest segment of the study sample (44%: non-Hispanic whites, n=291; African Americans, n=187; and Hispanics, n=241), followed by diabetes (37%: non-Hispanic whites, n=177; African Americans, n=187; and Hispanics, n=241) and persons with impaired glucose tolerance (23%: non-Hispanic whites, n=145; African Americans, n=101; and Hispanics, n=123).

Height, weight, and girths (minimum waist and hips) were measured by following a standardized protocol. Body mass index (BMI; weight/height² [kg/m²]) was used as an estimate of overall adiposity. Waist circumference was taken as the minimum circumference between the thorax and the hips. The waist circumference was used as an estimate of body fat distribution.

The IRAS examination required 2 visits (approximately 1 week apart [range 2 to 28 days]),⁴⁵ each lasting 4 hours. An oral glucose tolerance test and a frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test (FSIGT) were performed during the first and second visits, respectively. Glucose tolerance was classified according to World Health Organization criteria.⁴⁶

Insulin sensitivity was assessed by the FSIGT with minimal model analyses. The protocol has been previously described in detail.^{44 45} The FSIGT (insulin modified with 12 time points) protocol used in the IRAS has been compared with the hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp and shown to be a valid measure of insulin resistance.⁴⁷

Plasma glucose was measured with the glucose oxidase technique on an automated autoanalyzer (Yellow Springs Equipment Co). Insulin was measured using the dextran-charcoal radioimmunoassay, which has considerable cross-reactivity with proinsulin.

Plasma lipoprotein measurements were obtained from fasting, single, fresh plasma samples by using Lipid Research Clinics methods. VLDL was isolated by preparative ultracentrifugation, and the VLDL (top) and bottom fractions were measured for cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations. HDL cholesterol was measured after precipitation of apo B–containing lipoproteins with MnCl₂ and heparin. The cholesterol content in the supernatant was measured in a separate autoanalyzer channel set to measure low cholesterol values. LDL cholesterol was calculated as the difference between the HDL cholesterol and the bottom cholesterol. Triglycerides were measured enzymatically after correction for free glycerol. Direct measurement of VLDL cholesterol by preparative ultracentrifugation was done for all subjects.

LDL size distribution (ie, distribution of diameters of the major LDL peaks for all participants) was determined using the method of Krauss and Burke.⁴⁸ Gradient gels were obtained from Isolab. Measurement of the size of the predominant peak was calibrated using LDL subfractions whose molecular diameters were determined by analytical ultracentrifugation (courtesy of Dr Ronald Krauss, Donner Laboratories, Berkeley, Calif). The LDL size of the predominant peak for an individual was defined as that person's LDL size.⁴¹ In the IRAS, the coefficient of variance was 2%.

Mean values of the cardiovascular risk factors were compared according to ethnic group by ANCOVA (SAS version 6.08, SAS Institute). Logarithmic transformations (for statistical testing) were used for triglyceride values. Further adjustment was made for variables previously shown to affect LDL size (Table 3). Because waist circumference and BMI were highly correlated (r=0.82), they were not included in the same regression model. Spearman correlations were used to describe the relationship of LDL size to possible confounding variables separately in the ethnic groups (Table 2). The LDL size by ethnic group is also shown stratified by possible confounding variables (the Figure) by using ANCOVA. Because the non-Hispanic whites were sampled at all 4 locations, whereas African Americans and Hispanics were sampled at only 2 areas, we examined whether the reference group (non-Hispanic whites) was similar in all 4 areas with respect to key variables (triglyceride, HDL cholesterol, and LDL size). Non-Hispanic whites were similar with respect to these variables, and therefore, we compared the ethnic groups by adjusting for clinic location.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 3. LDL Size by Ethnicity After Adjustment for Selected Variables

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 2. Spearman Correlations Between LDL Size and Selected Variables by Ethnic Groups

View larger version (60K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. LDL size (Å) by ethnicity and stratified by sex (upper left), diabetic status (upper right), triglyceride 127 or <127 mg/dL (lower left), and HDL cholesterol level 43.5 or <43.5 mg/dL (lower right). The HDL cholesterol and triglyceride values represent the medians for the entire population. LDL size was adjusted by age and clinic.

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Table 1 shows the clinical and biochemical characteristics of the population. Obesity (BMI) was greater in Hispanics and African Americans than in non-Hispanic whites. Insulin concentrations were higher and insulin sensitivity lower in Hispanics and African Americans relative to non-Hispanic whites. African Americans had the highest blood pressure, and Hispanics had the lowest blood pressure. The proportion of subjects on lipid-lowering medications was very low in all ethnic groups (8.0%) and did not differ by ethnic group. Because the results for subsequent analyses were similar with and without these subjects (on lipid treatment), we report data including these subjects. As might be expected from previous studies, African Americans had lower triglyceride and higher HDL cholesterol levels than did non-Hispanic whites. Hispanics had the opposite pattern, with higher triglyceride and lower HDL cholesterol levels than non-Hispanic whites. LDL size (Å) differed significantly (P<0.001) by ethnic group (African Americans 262.1±0.6, Hispanics 257.6±0.6, and non-Hispanic whites 259.2±0.4). In pairwise comparisons, African Americans had a significantly greater LDL size than did non-Hispanic whites (P<0.001) or Hispanics (P<0.001). Hispanics had a slightly smaller LDL size than did non-Hispanic whites (P=0.039).

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 1. Clinical and Biochemical Description of Subjects

Table 2 shows the correlations between LDL size and selected variables. In the overall population, LDL size was significantly correlated with obesity (BMI) (r=-0.09), waist circumference (r=-0.19), fasting glucose (r=-0.17), 2-hour glucose (r=-0.20), fasting insulin (r=-0.18), insulin sensitivity (S_I) (r=0.21), HDL cholesterol (r=0.38), and triglyceride (r=-0.47). However, LDL size was not significantly related to systolic (r=-0.01) or diastolic (r=0.04) blood pressure. These associations were similar in each ethnic group. After further adjustment for diabetic status (data not shown), LDL size continued to be significantly related to triglyceride, HDL cholesterol, and insulin sensitivity, although the magnitude of the association was somewhat attenuated.

The Figure shows LDL size by ethnic group stratified by selected variables by use of a 2-wayANOVA. Male sex, type 2 diabetes, high triglyceride levels, and low HDL cholesterol levels were associated with smaller LDL size. African Americans continued to have a higher LDL size after adjustment for sex or diabetic status compared with non-Hispanic whites. Hispanics had a smaller LDL size than did non-Hispanic whites after adjustment for sex or diabetic status. However, after adjustment for triglyceride or HDL levels, the ethnic differences in LDL size were attenuated, especially in the groups with low triglyceride or high HDL cholesterol values.

Table 3 shows ethnic differences in LDL size after sequential adjustment in possible confounding variables. Ethnic differences in LDL size remained statistically significant after further adjustment for demographic variables or the following variables: obesity, body fat distribution, glucose levels, or insulin sensitivity. However, adjustment for triglyceride and HDL cholesterol attenuated the ethnic differences in LDL size, although there remained modestly lower LDL size in Hispanics than in African Americans (model 5 or 6).

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
We have confirmed earlier data that African Americans have decreased triglyceride and increased HDL cholesterol levels compared with non-Hispanic whites.^{25 26} In this report, for the first time, we have shown that LDL size is significantly higher in African Americans than in non-Hispanic whites. These differences are not the result of the greater adiposity, diabetes, or insulin resistance in African Americans. However, after controlling for the lower triglyceride and higher HDL cholesterol levels in African Americans, the ethnic differences in LDL size are no longer significant, except for possibly a smaller LDL size in Hispanics than in African Americans (Table 3, models 5 and 6).

We have also shown that Hispanics have a smaller LDL size than do non-Hispanic whites, as has been reported previously from the San Antonio Heart Study.⁴¹ As in that report, Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites had similar LDL size after adjustment for dyslipidemia and lipoproteins. In the current report, Hispanics had lower HDL cholesterol and higher triglyceride levels than did non-Hispanic whites, which is consistent with a number of previous studies.^{15 16}

In previous articles, LDL size was associated with increased triglyceride levels, decreased HDL cholesterol levels, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, obesity, and an unfavorable body fat distribution.^{29 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43} With the exception of a few studies,^{41 43} those studies were done in predominantly white (ie, non-Hispanic white) populations. The current report demonstrates that these relations also occur in African Americans and Hispanics. (Because of the large number of subjects, relatively weak associations such as BMI (r=-0.09; Table 2) may be statistically significant. The correlations, however, of LDL size with triglyceride and HDL were strong as in other studies.) Although it might be expected that similar relations between LDL size and other variables among different ethnic groups might exist, this is not always true of all associations. In the IRAS, insulin resistance was related to atherosclerosis in Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites but not in African Americans.⁴⁹ Insulin resistance has been related to blood pressure in whites but not in African Americans in 1 study⁵⁰ ; however, in another study, insulin resistance was related to blood pressure in African Americans.⁵¹

Previous studies have suggested increased CVD in African Americans.^{10 11 12} Because our data suggest that LDL size is actually higher in African Americans than in non-Hispanic whites, this observation cannot explain the ethnic difference in CVD rates. Hispanics were initially reported to have lower CVD rates than non-Hispanic whites,^{1 2 3 4 5 6} although recent findings have shown higher rates of CVD in Hispanics.^{7 8 9 52} In the IRAS, common carotid artery intima-media wall thickness was highest in African Americans and lowest in Hispanics,¹³ which is the opposite pattern observed for LDL size in this respect.

The reason for the higher LDL size in African Americans is not well understood. Cohen et al⁵³ have suggested that the human hepatic lipase gene is a major determinant of HDL cholesterol levels, although Mahaney et al,⁵⁴ in a Mexican-American population, have found a major gene linked to HDL cholesterol and apoA1 but excluded the possibility of linkage to the human hepatic lipase locus. African Americans have been found to have a high frequency of the A allele at the human hepatic lipase locus,^{55 56} which is associated with lower hepatic triglyceride lipase levels and thus, could be an explanation for the higher LDL size in this ethnic group, although further work is needed in this area.

We have shown that LDL size is greater in African Americans than in non-Hispanic whites or Hispanics after adjustment for upper body adiposity, fasting glucose, and insulin resistance (Table 3, model 4). After further adjustment for triglyceride or HDL cholesterol (models 5 and 6), the higher LDL size in African Americans was markedly attenuated. However, adjustment for triglyceride or HDL cholesterol in regression models in which LDL size is a dependent variable can be problematic because of the strong correlations (possible "statistical issue" of multicolinearity) and because triglyceride and HDL levels are major determinants of LDL size ("physiological issue"). Austin and colleagues⁵⁷ have introduced the combination of LDL size, triglyceride, and HDL cholesterol, which they have named the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. With the use of factor analysis, the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype has been associated with insulin resistance⁵⁸ and is increased in prediabetic subjects who are insulin resistant.⁵⁹ Interestingly, Lamarche et al⁶⁰ have recently shown that "nontraditional risk factors" (LDL size, apo B, and insulin levels) strongly predict the development of ischemic heart disease in men.

In conclusion, we have found an ethnic difference in the LDL size distribution, with African Americans having the highest LDL size ("less atherogenic") and Hispanics having the lowest LDL size; these ethnic differences in LDL size, however, appear to be primarily due to differences in triglyceride and HDL cholesterol among the ethnic groups. Similar variables (triglyceride, HDL cholesterol, insulin resistance, etc) appear to be related to LDL size in these ethnic groups. Last, ethnic differences in LDL size are not consistent with previously reported differences in their risk of CVD or atherosclerosis; in fact, the ethnic differences in LDL size may be opposite the CVD risk differences by ethnic group.

	Acknowledgments

 
This work was supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (grants HL47887, HL47889, HL47890, HL47892, and HL47902), and the General Clinic Research Centers Program (grants NCRR GCRC, MO1 RR431, and MO1 RR01346) (to S.M.H. and M.F.S.).

Received November 23, 1998; accepted January 25, 1999.

	References

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 

1. Stern MP, Gaskill SP. Secular trends in ischemic heart disease and stroke mortality from 1970–1976 in Spanish-surnamed and other white individuals in Bexar County, Texas. Circulation. 1978;58:537–543.[Free Full Text]
2. Stern MP, Bradshaw BS, Eifler CW, Fong DS, Hazuda HP, Rosenthal M. Secular decline in death rates due to ischemic heart disease in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites in Texas. Circulation. 1987;76:1245–1250.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
3. Mitchell BD, Haffner SM, Hazuda HP, Patterson JK, Stern MP. Diabetes and coronary heart disease in Mexican Americans. Ann Epidemiol. 1992;2:101–106.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
4. Rewers M, Shetterly SM, Hoag S, Baxter J, Marshall J, Hamman RF. Is the risk of coronary heart disease lower in Hispanics than in non-Hispanic whites? The San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Ethn Dis. 1993;3:44–54.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
5. Rewers M, Shetterly SM, Baxter J, Marshall JA, Hamman RF. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in subjects with normal and impaired glucose tolerance and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in a biethnic Colorado population: the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;135:1321–1330.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
6. Frerichs RR, Chapman JM, Mass EF. Mortality due to all causes and to cardiovascular diseases among seven race-ethnic populations in Los Angeles County, 1980. Int J Epidemiol. 1984;13:291–298.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
7. Goff DC Jr, Ramsey DJ, Wear ML, Labarthe DR, Nichaman MZ. Mortality after hospitalization for myocardial infarction among Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites: the Corpus Christi Heart Project. Ethn Dis. 1993;3:55–63.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
8. Wei M, Valdez RA, Mitchell BD, Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP. Migration status, socioeconomic status, and mortality rates in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites: the San Antonio Heart Study. Ann Epidemiol. 1996;6:307–313.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
9. Wei M, Valdez RA, Mitchell BD, Haffner SM, Hazuda HP, Stern MP. Effects of cigarette smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol, and hypertension on all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in Mexican Americans: the San Antonio Heart Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;144:1058–1065.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
10. Gillum FR. Cardiovascular disease in the United States: an epidemiologic overview. Cardiovasc Clin. 1991;21:3–16.
11. Keil JE, Saunders SE Jr. Urban and rural differences in cardiovascular disease in blacks. Cardiovasc Clin.. 1991;21:17–28.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
12. Lewis C, Raczynski JB, Oberman A, Cutter GR. Risk factors and the natural history of coronary heart disease in blacks. Cardiovasc Clin. 1991;21:29–45.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
13. D'Agostino RB Jr, Burke G, O'Leary D, Rewers M, Selby J, Savage PJ, Saad MF, Bergman RN, Howard G, Wagenknecht L, Haffner SM. Ethnic differences in carotid wall thickness: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Stroke. 1996;27:1744–1749.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
14. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Pugh JA, Patterson JK, Malina R. Upper body adiposity and centralized adiposity in Mexican American and non-Hispanic whites: relationship to body mass index and other behavioral and demographic variables. Int J Obes. 1986;10:493–502.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
15. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Rosenthal M, Knapp JA. The role of behavioral variables and fat pattern in explaining ethnic differences in lipids and lipoproteins. Am J Epidemiol. 1986;123:830–839.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
16. Burchfiel CM, Hamman RF, Marshall JA, Baxter J, Kahn LB, Amirani JJ. Cardiovascular risk factors and impaired glucose tolerance: the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;131:57–70.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
17. Hamman RF, Marshall JA, Baxter J, Kahn LB, Mayer EJ, Orlean M, Murphy JR, Lezotte DC. Methods and prevalence of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in a biethnic Colorado population: the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1989;129:295–311.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
18. Stern MP, Rosenthal M, Haffner SM, Hazuda HP, Franco LJ. Sex difference in the effects of sociocultural status on diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors in Mexican Americans: the San Antonio Heart Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1984;120:834–851.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
19. Haffner SM, Hazuda HP, Mitchell BD, Patterson JK, Stern MP. Increased incidence of type II diabetes mellitus in Mexican Americans. Diabetes Care. 1991;14:102–108.[Abstract]
20. Haffner SM, Mitchell BD, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Patterson JK. Decreased prevalence of hypertension in Mexican Americans. Hypertension. 1990;16:226–232.
21. Mitchell BD, Stern MP, Haffner SM, Hazuda HP, Patterson JK. Risk factors for cardiovascular mortality in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites: the San Antonio Heart Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;131:423–433.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
22. Hypertension Detection, and Follow-up Program Cooperative Group. Race, education and prevalence of hypertension. Am J Epidemiol. 1977;106:351–361.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
23. Harris MI. Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in black and white Americans. Diabetes Metab Rev. 1990;6:71–90.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
24. Cowie CC, Harris MI, Silverman RE, Johnson EW, Rust KF. Effect of multiple risk factors on differences between blacks and whites in the prevalence of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;137:719–732.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
25. Freedman DS, Strogatz DS, Eaker E, Joesoef MR, DeStefano F. Differences between black and white men in correlates of high density lipoprotein cholesterol. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;132:656–659.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
26. Tyroler HA, Hames CG, Krishan I, Heyden S, Cooper G, Cassel J. Black-white differences in serum lipids and lipoproteins in Evans County. Prev Med. 1975;4:541–549.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
27. Austin MA, Breslow JL, Hennekens CH, Buring JL, Willett WC, Krauss RM. Low density lipoprotein subclass pattern and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1988;260:1917–1921.[Abstract]
28. Crouse JR, Parks JS, Schey HM, Kahl FT. Studies of low density lipoprotein molecular weight in human beings with coronary artery disease. J Lipid Res. 1985;26:566–675.[Abstract]
29. Campos H, Genest JJ, Blijlevens E, McNamara JR, Jenner JL, Ordovas JM, Wilson PWF, Schaefer EJ. Low density lipoprotein particle size and coronary heart disease. Arteriosclerosis. 1992;12:187–195.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
30. Tornvall P, Karpe F, Carlson LA, Hamsten A. Relationships of low density lipoprotein subfractions to angiographically defined coronary heart disease in young survivors of myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis. 1991;90:67–80.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
31. Coresh J, Kwiterovich PO Jr, Smith HH, Bachorik PS. Association of plasma triglyceride concentration and LDL particle diameter, density, and chemical composition with premature coronary artery disease in men and women. J Lipid Res. 1993;34:1687–1697.[Abstract]
32. Gardner CD, Fortmann SP, Krauss RM. Association of small low-density lipoprotein particles with the incidence of coronary artery disease in men and women. JAMA. 1996;276:875–881.[Abstract]
33. Stampfer MJ, Krauss RM, Ma J, Blanche PJ, Holl LG, Sacks FM, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of triglyceride level, low-density lipoprotein particle diameter, and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1996;276:882–888.[Abstract]
34. Lamarche B, Tchernof A, Moorjani S, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, Lupien PJ, Després J-P. Small, dense low-density lipoprotein particles as a predictor of the risk of ischemic heart disease in men: prospective results from the Québec Cardiovascular Study. Circulation. 1997;95:69–75.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
35. Barakat HA, Carpenter JW, McLendon VD, Khazanie P, Leggett N, Heath J, Marks R. Influence of obesity, impaired glucose tolerance and NIDDM on LDL structure and composition: possible link between hyperinsulinemia and atherosclerosis. Diabetes. 1990;39:1527–1533.[Abstract]
36. McNamara JR, Campos H, Ordovas JM, Peterson RM, Wilson PWF, Schaefer EJ. Effect of gender, age and lipid status on low density subfraction distribution: results of the Framingham Offspring Study. Arteriosclerosis. 1987;7:483–490.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
37. Swinkels DW, Demacker PNM, Hendricks JCM, Van't Laar A. Low density lipoprotein subfractions and relationship of other risk factors for coronary artery disease in healthy individuals. Arteriosclerosis. 1989;9:604–613.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
38. Selby JV, Austin MA, Newman B, Zhang D, Quesenberry CP, Mayer EJ, Kraus RM. LDL subclass phenotypes and the insulin resistance syndrome in women. Circulation. 1993;85:381–387.
39. Campos H, Willett WC, Peterson RM, Siles X, Bailey SM, Wilson PWF, Posner BM, Ordovas JM, Schaefer EJ. Nutrient intake comparisons between Framingham and urban Costa Rica: associations with lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, and low density lipoprotein particle size. Arterioscler Thromb.. 1991;11:1089–1099.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
40. Reaven GM, Chen YD, Jeppesen J, Maheux P, Krauss RM. Insulin resistance in individuals with small, dense lipoprotein particles. J Clin Invest. 1993;92:141–146.
41. Haffner SM, Mykkänen L, Valdez RA, Paidi M, Stern MP, Howard BV. LDL size and subclass pattern in a biethnic population. Arteriosclerosis. 1993;13:1623–1630.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
42. Feingold KR, Grunfeld C, Doerrler W, Krauss RM. LDL subclass phenotypes and triglyceride metabolism in non-insulin dependent diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb. 1992;12:1496–1502.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
43. Haffner SM, Mykkänen L, Stern MP, Paidi M, Howard BV. Greater effect of diabetes on LDL size in women than in men. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:1164–1171.[Abstract]
44. Haffner SM, D'Agostino R, Saad MF, Rewers M, Mykkänen L, Selby J, Howard G, Savage PJ, Hamman RF, Wagenknecht LE, Bergman RN. Increased insulin resistance and insulin secretion in non-diabetic African Americans and Hispanics compared with non-Hispanic whites: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Diabetes. 1996;45:742–748.[Abstract]
45. Wagenknecht LE, Mayer EJ, Rewers M, Haffner SM, Selby J, Burke GM, Henkin L, Howard G, Savage PJ, Saad MF, Bergman RN, Hamman R. The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS): objectives, design and recruitment results. Ann Epidemiol. 1995;5:464–471.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
46. World Health Organization. Diabetes mellitus report of a WHO study group. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; Technical report series No. 727. 1985.
47. Saad MF, Anderson RL, Laws A, Watanabe RM, Kades WW, Chen YDI, Sands RE, Pei D, Savage PJ, Bergman RN. A comparison between the minimal model and the glucose clamp in the assessment of insulin sensitivity across the spectrum of glucose tolerance. Diabetes. 1994;43:1114–1121.[Abstract]
48. Krauss RM, Burke DJ. Identification of multiple subclasses of plasma low density lipoproteins in normal humans. J Lipid Res.. 1982;23:97–104.[Abstract]
49. Howard G, O'Leary DH, Zaccaro D, Haffner SM, Rewers M, Hamman R, Selby JV, Saad MF, Savage P, Bergman R. Insulin sensitivity and atherosclerosis. Circulation. 1996;93:1809–1817.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
50. Saad MF, Lillioja S, Nyomba BL, Castillo C, Ferraro R, DeGregorio M, Ravussin E, Knowler WC, Bennett PH, Howard BV, Bogardus C. Racial differences in the relation between blood pressure and insulin resistance. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:733–739.[Abstract]
51. Falkner B, Hulman S, Tannenbaum J, Kushner H. Insulin resistance and blood pressure in young black men. Hypertension. 1990;16:706–711.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
52. Goff DC, Nichaman MZ, Chan W, Ramsey DJ, Labarthe DR, Ortiz C. Greater incidence of hospitalized myocardial infarction among Mexican Americans than non-Hispanic whites: the Corpus Christi Heart Project, 1988–1992. Circulation. 1997;95:1433–1440.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
53. Cohen JC, Wang Z, Grundy SM, Stoesz MR, Guerra R. Variation at the hepatic lipase and apolipoprotein AI/CIII/AIV loci is a major cause of genetically determined variation in plasma HDL cholesterol levels. J Clin Invest. 1994;97:2377–2384.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
54. Mahaney MC, Blangero J, Rainwater DL, Commuzzie AG, VandeBerg JL, Stern JL, MacCluer JW, Hixson JE. A major locus influencing plasma high density lipoprotein cholesterol in the San Antonio Family Heart Study: segregation and linkage analyses. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995;15:1730–1739.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
55. Vega GL, Clark LT, Tang A, Marcovina S, Grundy SM, Cohen JC. Hepatic lipase activity is lower in African American men than in white American men: effects of 5' flanking polymorphism in the hepatic lipase gene (LIPC). J Lipid Res. 1998;39:228–232.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
56. Zambon A, Deeb SS, Hokanson JE, Brown BG, Brunzell JD. Common variants in the promoter of the hepatic lipase gene are associated with lower levels of hepatic lipase activity, buoyant LDL, and higher HDL₂ cholesterol. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:1723–1729.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
57. Austin MA, King M-C, Vranizan KM, Krauss RM. Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype: a proposed genetic marker for coronary heart disease risk. Circulation. 1990;82:495–506.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
58. Edwards KL, Austin MA, Newman B, Mayer EJ, Krauss RM, Selby JV. Multivariate analysis of the insulin resistance syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb. 1994;14:1940–1945.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
59. Austin MA, Mykkänen L, Kuusisto J, Edwards KL, Nelson C, Haffner SM, Pyörälä K, Laakso M. Prospective study of small LDLs as a risk factor for non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in elderly men and women. Circulation. 1995;92:1770–1778.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
60. Lamarche B, Tchernof A, Mauriège P, Cantin B, Dagenais RG, Lupien PJ, Després JP. Fasting insulin and apolipoprotein B levels and low-density lipoprotein particle size as risk factors for ischemic heart disease. JAMA. 1998;279:1955–1961[Abstract/Free Full Text]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				I. J. Kullo, K. Ding, E. Boerwinkle, S. T. Turner, and M. de Andrade Quantitative trait loci influencing low density lipoprotein particle size in African Americans J. Lipid Res., July 1, 2006; 47(7): 1457 - 1462. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. de Simone Left Ventricular Hypertrophy in Blacks and Whites: Different Genes or Different Exposure? Hypertension, July 1, 2005; 46(1): 23 - 24. [Full Text] [PDF]

				Y. Bosse, L. Perusse, and M.-C. Vohl Genetics of LDL particle heterogeneity: from genetic epidemiology to DNA-based variations J. Lipid Res., June 1, 2004; 45(6): 1008 - 1026. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. S. Deeb, A. Zambon, M. C. Carr, A. F. Ayyobi, and J. D. Brunzell Hepatic lipase and dyslipidemia: interactions among genetic variants, obesity, gender, and diet J. Lipid Res., July 1, 2003; 44(7): 1279 - 1286. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Festa, R. D'Agostino Jr, S. S. Rich, N. S. Jenny, R. P. Tracy, and S. M. Haffner Promoter (4G/5G) Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 Genotype and Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 Levels in Blacks, Hispanics, and Non-Hispanic Whites: The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study Circulation, May 20, 2003; 107(19): 2422 - 2427. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. C. Schwenke, R. B. D'Agostino Jr., David. C. Goff Jr., A. J. Karter, M. J. Rewers, and L. E. Wagenknecht Differences in LDL Oxidizability by Glycemic Status: The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study Diabetes Care, May 1, 2003; 26(5): 1449 - 1455. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				W. T. Garvey, S. Kwon, D. Zheng, S. Shaughnessy, P. Wallace, A. Hutto, K. Pugh, A. J. Jenkins, R. L. Klein, and Y. Liao Effects of Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes on Lipoprotein Subclass Particle Size and Concentration Determined by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Diabetes, February 1, 2003; 52(2): 453 - 462. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Haffner, S. M. Articles by Mykkänen, L. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Haffner, S. M. Articles by Mykkänen, L. Pubmed/NCBI databases Compound via MeSH Substance via MeSH Related Collections Chronic ischemic heart disease Epidemiology Lipids