© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Atherosclerosis and Lipoproteins |
Overexpression of Human Catalase Gene Decreases Oxidized Lipid-Induced Cytotoxicity in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells
From the Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Ga.
Correspondence to Sampath Parthasarathy, PhD, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University, School of Medicine, 1639 Pierce Dr, 4302 WMB, Atlanta, GA 30322. E-mail spartha{at}emory.edu
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Abstract—Reactive oxygen metabolites such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and oxidized fatty acids are proinflammatory and are involved in the pathophysiology of various diseases including atherosclerosis. The effects of these oxidants could be inhibited by the external addition of an antioxidant, suggesting the promotion or propagation of further oxidation. In this study, we describe the stable overexpression of human catalase in smooth muscle cells and the resistance of these cells to cytotoxicity induced not only by the addition of H2O2 but also by the addition of 13-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid (13-HPODE). The results pose an intriguing possibility of the generation of H2O2 from a peroxidized fatty acid. Accordingly, incubation of cells with both 13-HPODE and 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid resulted in the generation of intracellular H2O2. To explain the observed results by which catalase could overcome the effects of 13-HPODE, we propose that oxidized fatty acids are degraded in the cellular peroxisomes, resulting in the generation of H2O2. In other words, the cellular effects of peroxidized fatty acids could be attributed to the generation of H2O2.
Key Words: atherosclerosis • 13-HPODE • peroxisomes • hydrogen peroxide • ß-oxidation
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Introduction |
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Disruption of the delicate balance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants has been implicated in the pathophysiology of many chronic diseases, such as atherosclerosis.1 A plethora of information suggests that oxidants, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and lipid peroxide (LOOH), induce a number of proatherogenic changes in cell types that are present in the atherosclerotic artery.2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Most of these effects could be prevented by the addition of extracellular antioxidants,9 10 suggesting further propagation of oxidation. Studies that used the manipulation of genes for antioxidant enzymes11 12 to test the effects of oxidants on cells also corroborate the assumption that intracellular oxidative stress might play an important role in the transduction of oxidative stress from external sources to intracellular sites. Previously, Shingu et al13 showed that endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells have very low levels of catalase activity and therefore are more susceptible to damage by H2O2. Several studies had attempted to overexpress catalase enzyme in various cell types and looked for the effect of this enzyme in preventing oxidation-related damage. Yamada et al14 identified 2 H2O2-resistant cell lines, HP50-2 and HP100-1, which were more resistant to the toxic effects of H2O2 than the parent cell line HL60. They found 3 to 18 times, respectively, higher catalase activity in these cell lines. Transient overexpression of catalase in human umbilical vein endothelial cells15 and acatalasemic murine fibroblast SV-B2 cells16 conferred protection on these cells from H2O2-mediated oxidant stress.
Interestingly, many of the effects of peroxidized fatty acids and H2O2 can be mimicked by hydroxy derivatives of fatty acids, such as hydroxy linoleic acids (HODEs) and hydroxy arachidonic acids (HETEs). Considering the finding of Gordon and associates17 that peroxidized arachidonic acids are degraded in cellular peroxisomes, and on the basis of the fact that peroxisomal degradation of fatty acids, in contrast to their mitochondrial degradation, generates H2O2,18 we speculated whether the cellular effects of oxidized lipids are mediated via the production of H2O2. To test this hypothesis, we generated smooth muscle cells that overexpressed human catalase in a stable manner. We measured the resistance of these cells to cytotoxicity induced not only by the addition of H2O2 but also by the addition of 13-hydroperxyoctadecadienoic acid (13-HPODE). The results are novel as we demonstrate that the cells enriched in catalase are resistant to the damaging effects of an oxidized lipid. A novel scheme is proposed to explain the observed results by which catalase could overcome the effects of 13-HPODE.
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Methods |
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Human catalase cDNA was a generous gift from Dr G.T. Mullenbach19 (Chiron Corporation). Minimal essential medium (MEM), penicillin, streptomycin, glutamine, trypsin, HBSS, and FCS were purchased from Cellgro Mediatech Co. Linoleic acid, H2O2, human kidney catalase, 3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl) 2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT), 2'-7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCF-DA), and soybean lipoxygenase were all obtained from Sigma Chemical Co. Rabbit polyclonal anti-human erythrocyte catalase antibody was obtained from Athens Research and Technology. [3H]thymidine (1 mCi/mmol) was obtained from Amersham. 13-Hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (13-HODE) was obtained from Cayman Chemicals.
Cell Culture
Rabbit femoral artery smooth muscle cells (RASMCs) (American
Tissue Cell Culture) were routinely cultured in MEM supplemented with
10% FCS, 1% L-glutamine, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin.
For transfection studies cells were grown in T-75 cell culture flasks
until 60% to 80% confluence. For other studies the cells are cultured
in 6-well or 24-well dishes. Cells are routinely passaged using
trypsin/EDTA method.
Plasmid Construction
An entire 2.3-kilobase (kb) cDNA clone of the human catalase
cDNA containing the entire coding region of human catalase was isolated
from pBluescript II SK±(pBS-Cat) through digestion of the unique
XbaI and SalI site on pBluescript II. This
plasmid contains the entire coding sequence of the human catalase
cDNA.
Construction of the Expression Vector
The mammalian expression vector used in our study was the
pCI-Neo mammalian expression vector (catalog No. E1841, Promega), which
carries the human cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate early
enhancer/promoter region to promote constitutive expression of cloned
DNA inserts in mammalian cells. The pCI-Neo vector contains the
neomycin phosphotransferase gene as the selectable marker for mammalian
cells.
The XbaI- and SalI-digested 2.3-kb catalase plasmid was inserted into the XbaI and SalI site of the pCI-Neo vector, 3' to the promoter and 5' to the poly A signals. The resulting clone of human catalase cDNA in the pCI-Neo vector (pCI-Neo-Cat) was used for transfection studies.
Transfection of Catalase cDNA in RASMCs
RASMCs were plated at a density of 3 to
5x106 cells/100-mm cell culture dish in MEM
supplemented with 10% FCS. After 24 hours of incubation, the cells
were transfected by the calcium phosphate precipitate method using the
Profection Mammalian Transfection Systems kit available from Promega
(catalog No. E1200) and used according to the manufacturer's
instructions. The pCI-Neo-Cat vector was transfected into the cells.
Transfecting only the pCI-Neo expression vector generated control
clones of cells. Approximately 48 hours after transfection, the cells
were trypsinized and replated at a 1:4 dilution. The antibiotic G418
(Geneticin; Gibco) was added at (400 µg/mL) the following day.
G418-resistant colonies were isolated approximately 2 to 3
weeks after transfection by trypsinization. Selected clones were grown
to mass culture for further analysis. At least 4 separate
clones were used in these studies.
Catalase Enzyme Assay
Cells were cultured to confluence in 100-mm dishes. Cellular
lysate was prepared by sonication of suspensions of trypsinized cells
in PBS, pH 7.4, containing 0.05% deoxycholate. This suspension was
centrifuged at 40 000g for 20 minutes at 4°C to
remove unlysed cells and organelles. Catalase activity in the
transfected and untransfected control RASMCs were quantified by the
method of Aebi,20 in which
H2O2 was reacted with the
cell lysates (obtained as described above). The initial rate of
disappearance of H2O2 (0 to
60 seconds) was recorded spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of
240 nm. One unit of catalase activity was defined as the rate constant
of the first-order reaction using purified human erythrocyte catalase
(Sigma) as a standard. Activity units for catalase were expressed as
units per milligram of cell lysate protein. Protein was measured using
the Lowry method using BSA as the standard.21
DNA Isolation and Southern Blot Analysis
Genomic DNA from the untransfected smooth muscle cells, the
vector alone-transfected cells, and the catalase-transfected cells was
isolated as described by Sambrook et al.22 About 10 µg
of genomic DNA was digested with restriction endonucleases
XbaI and SalI. The digested DNA was then run on a
0.8% agarose gel and transferred onto nylon membrane following the
Genius System user's guide (Boehringer Mannheim). The membrane
was then hybridized with digoxin-labeled catalase cDNA overnight at
62°C. Colorimetric detection with nitroblue
tetrazolium (NBT) and 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-phosphate were
used to detect the hybridized signals.
Western Blot Analysis
Cell lysate at a protein concentration of 10 to 15 µg was
separated on a 10% SDS acrylamide electrophoresis. The gel
was transblotted onto a nitrocellulose membrane using the Bio-Rad blot
system. After blotting, the membrane was first blocked with 5% milk
powder in TBST (Tris base, saline, and Tween-20) overnight, and then
incubated with the primary antibody (rabbit polyclonal anti-human
catalase antibody, 1:250 dilution) for 1 hour, washed, and incubated
with secondary antibody anti-rabbit IgG conjugated to horseradish
peroxidase (1:1500) for 1 hour. After washing, the signal was detected
using the chemiluminescence kit available from Amersham, (ECL kit). The
intensity of the band was quantified using a densitometer.
Preparation of 13-HPODE
Stock linoleic acid was prepared in absolute ethanol. The
linoleic acid was oxidized to 13-HPODE with immobilized
soybean lipoxygenase (100 U/mL) at 37°C for 1 hour.
The formation of 13-HPODE was monitored spectrophotometrically by
scanning the absorption between 200 and 300 nm (model DB-3500;
SLM-AMINCO) using PBS as reference.23 Under these
conditions, the conversion into 13-HPODE is observed as an increase in
absorbance at the optical density of 234 nm. Usually, >90% conversion
of linoleic acid to 13-HPODE was achieved as determined by the molar
extinction coefficient of the conjugated dienes with TLC, HPLC, or the
leucomethylene blue (LMB) assay. The LMB assay, which determines the
actual peroxide content, usually provided peroxide content of 90% to
94%.
[3H]Thymidine Method
Normally, cells (1x104 cells/well) were
grown in a 24-well plate to subconfluence in medium containing 10% FCS
for 24 hours. Cells were washed, shifted to medium containing 0.5%
serum, and cultured for 24 hours to synchronize growth.
H2O2 (100 µmol/L)
and 13-HPODE (25 µmol/L) were added, and the cells were further
incubated in serum-free medium for 24 hours in the presence of 1 µCi
of [3H]thymidine. Control cells without any
oxidant were also run simultaneously. At the end of 24
hours, cells were washed and the incorporation of
[3H]thymidine radioactivity into the cellular
DNA was determined.24 The cells were washed with cold HBSS
followed by fixing with 5% trichloroacetic acid to remove unbound
radioactivity. The cells were then solubilized in lysis buffer (0.1%
sodium carbonate, 1N sodium hydroxide). The radioactivity in the
solubilized cells was then quantified after the addition of
scintillation cocktail, Ecolume (ICN), in a beta-scintillation counter
(Beckman LS 6500).
Cell Viability Assay Using MTT
The MTT assay was used additionally to measure cell
viability.25 The principle of this assay is that the
compound MTT (thiazolyl blue) undergoes cellular reduction by the
mitochondrial dehydrogenase of viable cells into a blue formazan, which
can be measured spectrophotometrically. Briefly, cells were grown in a
24-well plate and incubated with various concentrations of the oxidants
(0 to 200 µmol/L
H2O2 and 1 to 100
µmol/L 13-HPODE) for 24 hours. At the end of incubation, 0.1 mg (50
µL of 2 mg/mL) of MTT was added to each well and incubated at 37°C
for an additional 2 hours. After 2 hours, the media were removed
carefully, so as not to disturb the formazan crystals formed. Mineral
oil or DMSO, which is used to solubilize the formazan crystals, was
added to each well, and the plate was allowed to stand overnight at
4°C. The solubilized blue formazan in the mineral oil or DMSO was
quantified using a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 540 nm. There
is a linear relationship between the formazan generated and the number
of viable cells present. Results are expressed as a percentage of a
negative control (cells incubated in medium containing 10% FCS).
Confocal Microscopy for Intracellular
H2O2 Measurement
Cells were grown in complete media (medium containing 10% FCS
and growth supplements) to 80% confluence in 6-well plates. The media
was replaced with serum-free medium and grown for another 24 hours. The
quiescent cells were then treated with or without 25 µmol/L
13-HPODE or 13-HODE for 24 hours. The cells were washed thrice with
HBSS. Five milliliters of HBSS was added to all the cells followed by 8
mL of 5 µmol/L DCF-DA solution, and cells were incubated for 30
to 40 minutes in the dark. At the end of incubation, the
fluorescence intensity produced by the oxidation of DCF-DA by
H2O2 or other oxidants is
measured by laser confocal microscopy (MRC-1000,
Bio-Rad).26 The excitation wavelength used was 488 nm. The
value for fluorescence intensity is obtained from 8
recordings of 4 separate visual fields for each point. The
sensitivity of the instrument was calibrated using exogenously added
H2O2 and ranged between 10
and 100 nmol/L.
N-Benzoyl LMB Method for Peroxide Detection
This method measures the amount of free lipid peroxides
present in the system.27 It is a very common method to
measure peroxides such as
H2O2 and other lipid
peroxides. Different concentrations of 13-HPODE (5 to 25 µmol/L)
were incubated alone or with 100 or 200 U of human catalase at 37°C
for 1 hour. After incubation, 40 µL of the sample was put in each
well of a 96-well microtiter plate. The plate was incubated with 100
µL of N-benzoyl LMB color reagent (5 mg LMB in
dimethylformamide, 0.05 mol/L potassium phosphate buffer, pH 5.0,
1.4 g Triton X-100, and 5.5 mg hemoglobin). After 5 minutes at
room temperature, the sample was read at 660 nm in a microtiter plate
reader.
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Results |
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Catalase Protein and Enzyme Activity in Transfected RASMC Cells
Catalase enzyme activity was measured in cell homogenates using H2O2 as the substrate by the method of Aebi.20 As seen in Figure 1
, the enzyme activity of the transfected
cells (pCI-Neo-Cat) was nearly 4- to 6-fold higher as compared with the
cells transfected with the vector alone or untransfected cells.
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Western blot analysis of the untransfected and transfected
cells using rabbit anti-human erythrocyte catalase IgG fraction as the
primary antibody was performed. Human catalase is a 240-kDa tetramer
protein.19 As seen in Figure 1
(inset), pCI-Neo-Cat
cells had approximately 4-fold higher intensity 60-kDa band (monomer)
compared with the untransfected and the vector alone-transfected
cells.
Stable Integration of Human Catalase cDNA in the Transfected
RASMCs
Genomic DNA was isolated from both untransfected and transfected
cells and a Southern blot analysis was performed using a
nonradioactive method of detecting the nucleotides. The
primers used for probing the genomic DNA were prepared by digesting the
pCI-Neo expression vector containing the entire 2.3-kb human catalase
cDNA with XbaI and SalI. This digestion results
in a 5.5-kb fraction of the pCI-Neo vector and a 2.2-kb fraction of the
human catalase cDNA. The Southern blotting (Figure 2) showed both the 5.5-kb and the 2.2-kb
fractions, thereby confirming the stable integration of the human
catalase cDNA in the pCI-Neo-Cat–transfected cells. Cells transfected
with the vector alone showed only the 5.5-kb fraction. There was no
detectable band in the untransfected cells even though a faint band
corresponding to the endogenous catalase cDNA was seen in
all 3 cell types.
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Effect of H2O2 on Catalase-Transfected
Cells
To establish whether the catalase overexpressors could prevent the
injury caused by H2O2,
[3H]thymidine incorporation was performed. The
catalase-transfected and untransfected cells were exposed to 100
µmol/L H2O2 for 24 hours,
and cell proliferation was measured as an index of
[3H]thymidine incorporation. There was at least
36% incorporation in the catalase-transfected cells compared with the
vector alone-transfected cells (10%) and untransfected cells (18%) as
seen in Figure 3A. To measure whether the
decreased cell proliferation was caused by cytotoxicity, the cells were
incubated with increasing concentrations of
H2O2, and the viability was
measured using the MTT assay. As seen in Figure 3B, at 100
µmol/L H2O2, only 50% of
the vector-transfected and untransfected cells were viable, whereas
100% of the catalase-transfected cells were viable, suggesting that
catalase prevented the smooth muscle cells from cytotoxicity caused by
H2O2.
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Effect of 13-HPODE on Catalase-Transfected Cells
As mentioned earlier, reactive oxygen metabolites react
spontaneously with cellular lipids and oxidatively modify the fatty
acids. Oxidized lipids can mimic most of the oxidative mechanisms of
oxidized LDL involved in the pathogenesis of
atherosclerosis.2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Linoleic acid is the
most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid present in the plasma and
in LDL.28 13-HPODE is the oxidized product of linoleic
acid produced by lipoxygenases.29 30
13-HPODE induces apoptosis in smooth muscle cells and also
increases proto-oncogene expression.5 6 7 Therefore, we
incubated 13-HPODE with both transfected and untransfected cells and
measured [3H]thymidine incorporation and
cytotoxicity by MTT assay. As seen in Figure 4A, there was 80% thymidine
incorporation in the catalase-transfected cells compared with 60% in
vector alone-transfected and 55% in untransfected cells. When
cytotoxicity was measured using MTT assay,25 it was
observed (Figure 4B) that at 25 µmol/L 13-HPODE >100%
of the catalase cells were viable; however, only 60% of the vector
alone-transfected cells and 80% of the untransfected cells were
viable. This suggests that at the concentration of the 13-HPODE used in
the thymidine incorporation study there was a cytostatic effect rather
than a cytotoxic effect.
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Effect of In Vitro Addition of Catalase to 13-HPODE
To test whether the results obtained above can be because catalase
could directly react with 13-HPODE and inactivate it,
13-HPODE at different concentrations was incubated with either 100 or
200 U of catalase and the amount of hydroperoxide produced was measured
using the N-benzoyl LMB method27 at 660
nm. Figure 5 shows that there was no
reduction of reactivity between 13-HPODE and the dye in the presence of
catalase, suggesting that catalase does not directly interact with
13-HPODE. When HPODE was reduced to HODE (by pretreatment with
Ebselen), as expected, there was no reaction with the LMB reagent
(results not shown).
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The differences in the vector only controls could be because of the sensitivity of the CMV promoter to oxidative stress, which could be reflected in the activities of endogenous catalase in these controls. The cells that were used were from the same batch as the cells that were used for measuring catalase protein and activities. We observed that clones that contained very high levels of catalase failed to grow.
Decreased Production of Endogenous
H2O2 in Catalase-Transfected Cells
To establish whether the effect caused by 13-HPODE on smooth
muscle cells was related to the production of intracellular
H2O2, we incubated both
transfected and untransfected cells with 25 µmol/L 13-HPODE and
measured intracellular H2O2
using confocal microscopy. As seen in Figure 6A, control untransfected cells without
any addition had very little signal. However, the untransfected (Figure 6B) and vector alone-transfected cells (Figure 6D) had
2- to 4-fold increased fluorescence intensity
(Table) compared with catalase-transfected
cells (Figure 6E) in the presence of 13-HPODE. This suggests
that catalase in the transfected cells scavenged the
H2O2 produced.
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13-HPODE may further get reduced to 13-HODE. We observed that when
untransfected cells were incubated with 25 µmol/L 13-HODE, there
was an increased production of
H2O2 (Figure 6C) as
seen under confocal microscope. This observation suggests that oxidized
lipids can generate H2O2
intracellularly and catalase could scavenge this.
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Discussion |
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Oxidized lipids and H2O2 profoundly affect cellular properties. A number of different cell types respond to these agents. Cell proliferation, activation of the synthesis and secretion of specific gene products, expression of cell adhesion molecules, and a number of other effects have been described for both oxidized lipids and H2O2.2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The mechanism(s) by which these agents affect cells has been poorly studied. The ability of externally added antioxidants to suppress the effects of H2O2 and oxidized lipids9 10 on cells suggests that further propagation of oxidation might be involved. Accordingly, redox metals could use H2O2 and peroxidized lipids to generate hydroxyl and lipid peroxy radicals, which could propagate oxidation.31
A few studies have looked at the enrichment of cellular catalase levels on the ability of the cells to resist the toxic effects of H2O2. Transient overexpression of catalase in human umbilical vein endothelial cells15 and acatalasemic murine fibroblast SV-B2 cells16 conferred protection on these cells from H2O2-mediated oxidant stress. The current study is the first to generate a stable cell line that overexpressed the enzyme to demonstrate that the overexpression of catalase indeed affords protection against H2O2-induced cytotoxicity. However, to our surprise, these cells were also resistant to the effects of 13-HPODE, a peroxidized fatty acid.
How do we explain these results? First, we considered the possibility
that catalase might some how react with and inactivate
13-HPODE. Stoichiometric interaction is unlikely, as it is not possible
that such large amounts (µmol/L levels) of catalase protein are
generated and secreted outside the cell or are present in the cell
cytoplasm. However, our recent studies32 have shown that
only as little as 3% to 10% of the added 13-HPODE is transported into
the cells under these conditions, suggesting that the intracellular
concentrations of 13-HPODE could have been substantially lower.
Therefore, to test whether 13-HPODE could be directly
inactivated by catalase, we tested the ability of 13-HPODE
to react with N-benzoyl LMB27 in the
presence of catalase. The results shown in Figure 5 demonstrate
that there was absolutely no reduction in the reactivity of the
peroxides with the reagent regardless of the presence of catalase.
Second, we considered the possibility that cells could generate
H2O2 from 13-HPODE.
Pioneering studies by Gordon and coworkers17 have
demonstrated that oxidized arachidonic acid derivatives
are targets of peroxisomal degradation. Degradation of fatty acids in
the peroxisomes would result in the generation of
H2O2. To test this
possibility, we incubated cells with 13-HPODE. Results
presented in Figure 6 show that, indeed, cells incubated
with 13-HPODE generated more fluorescence, attributed to the
formation of H2O2, and that
H2O2 accumulated poorly in
cells stably transfected with catalase. As pointed out in the preceding
paragraph, it is unlikely that catalase directly
inactivated 13-HPODE. These results, together with the
finding that the transport of 13-HPODE into cells is markedly reduced,
also suggest that 13-HPODE alone could not be responsible for the
generation of intracellular fluorescence.
These results go on to explain a puzzling paradox. How do the hydroxy
fatty acids such as the HODEs and HETEs affect cells and why would
antioxidants prevent their effects? These lipids do not propagate
oxidation even in the presence of metal ions. We speculated that their
cellular effects also are likely to be mediated by
H2O2 generated during their
degradation in the peroxisomes. Accordingly, when we incubated cells
with 13-HODE (a product that does not react with DCF-DA or LMB),
intense fluorescence could be seen (Figure 6C),
suggesting the formation of
H2O2.
Our results provide a novel approach by which peroxidized lipid-induced cellular toxicity could be prevented. These results also suggest that cellular peroxisomes are an important target for gene induction and the prevention of metabolic toxicity.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by NIH Grant HL 52628-01A3, and we gratefully acknowledge the support by American Heart Association, Georgia Affiliate Fellowship grant (N.A.).
Received July 27, 1998; accepted January 8, 1999.
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