© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contributions |
Increased Plasma 7ß-Hydroxycholesterol Concentrations in a Population With a High Risk for Cardiovascular Disease
From the Department of Physiology and Biochemistry (A.K., Z.K.), Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius, Lithuania; the Department of Health and Environment (M.K.), Faculty of Health Sciences, and the Department of Medicine and Care and Clinical Research Center (B.Z., A.G.O.), Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping; the Department of Geriatrics (B.V.), Uppsala University, Uppsala; and the Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences and Technology (U.D.), Division of Clinical Chemistry, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden.
Correspondence to Bo Ziedén, Clinical Research Center and Department of Medicine and Care, Faculty of Health Sciences, S-581 85 Linköping, Sweden. E-mail Bo.Zieden{at}kfc.liu.se
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Abstract |
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Abstract—The mortality in coronary heart disease among 50- to 54-year-old men is 4 times higher in Lithuania than in Sweden. It was recently suggested that traditional risk factors could not explain this mortality difference. LDL of Lithuanian men showed, however, a lower resistance to oxidation than that of Swedish men. In addition, the plasma concentration of
-tocopherol, lycopene, and ß-carotene were lower in
Lithuanian men. In the present investigation, we determined plasma
oxysterols in men from Lithuania and Sweden and found that the plasma
concentration of 7ß-hydroxycholesterol was higher in
Lithuanian men, 12±5 versus 9±8 (SD) ng/mL (P=0.0011).
This oxysterol is a cholesterol autoxidation product
and there is no indication that it should have an enzymatic origin.
Mean LDL oxidation lag time was shorter in Lithuanian men (75±14
versus 90±13 minutes, P<0.0001) and the concentration
of LDL linoleic acid was lower (249±56 versus 292±54 µg/mg of LDL
protein, P<0.0001). Lipid corrected
-tocopherol was 0.07±0.02 mg/mL in Vilnius men and
0.12±0.04 mg/mL (P<0.0001) in Linköping men.
There was a negative correlation between the concentration of
7ß-hydroxycholesterol and lag time
(R=-0.31, P=0.0023). It is
suggested that the higher 7ß-hydroxycholesterol
concentration in Lithuanian men is an indication of an increased in
vivo lipid peroxidation.
Key Words: oxysterols • LDL oxidation • vitamins • fatty acids • cross-sectional study
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Introduction |
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Coronary heart disease (CHD) incidence and mortality is rising in the East European countries, in contrast to the decreasing trend in Western Europe and in the United States.1 2 3 For example, the mortality in CHD among 50- to 54-year-old men was 4 times higher in Lithuania than in Sweden in 1994. In LiVicordia I, a cross-sectional population study, we investigated the prevalence of ultrasound-detected subclinical atherosclerosis and possible causes for these diverging coronary mortality trends in the 2 countries.4 Lithuanian men had more carotid atherosclerosis. Although traditional risk factors could not explain the difference in CHD mortality, we found that Lithuanian men had a higher LDL susceptibility to oxidation and lower concentrations of the plasma antioxidant vitamins
-tocopherol, ß-carotene, and lycopene than Swedish
men. There is a high correlation between the plasma concentrations of
these vitamins and the corresponding vitamin content in
LDL.5 The increased susceptibility to oxidation and lower
concentrations of LDL-associated vitamins in the Lithuanian population
may be caused by dietary factors or an increased in vivo oxidation of
LDL. We have recently shown that cholesterol oxidation
products (oxysterols) are good markers of LDL oxidation in
vitro.6 In addition, the oxysterol
7ß-hydroxycholesterol, together with an increased
oxidation susceptibility of VLDL+LDL, were the strongest predictors of
progression of carotid atherosclerosis in Finnish
men.7 We therefore decided to determine oxysterols in
plasma from the 2 populations of 50-year-old men from Lithuania and
Sweden. |
Methods |
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Subjects
LiVicordia II is a cross-sectional study conducted in Vilnius and Linköping from December 1994 to May 1995. A list of 200 randomly selected men, born between July 1, 1943, and June 30, 1944, was obtained from the census register in each city. Of these, 120 men were invited to LiVicordia I and the remainder were invited to LiVicordia II.
Exclusion criteria for LiVicordia II were the same as for LiVicordia I, ie, serious acute or chronic diseases that could influence the results of the investigation or make participation impossible.4
Sampling
The volunteers came to the hospital between 7:30 and 9:30
AM after an overnight fast. Smoking was not allowed during
the morning before blood sampling. The prescribed dose of morning drugs
was taken. Body weight, sagittal diameter of the abdomen,8
height, and blood pressure were measured and blood was collected into
precooled blood collection tubes (Vacutainer, 7 mL) containing 0.12 mL
of 0.34 mol/L EDTA.
Plasma was prepared by centrifugation (1700g) at 4°C and stored in the dark or frozen at -20°C until transport and analysis. Fresh plasma samples for lipid analysis, LDL oxidation (lag time), and LDL fatty acid analyses were sent from Vilnius to Linköping as express packages cooled to 4°C. Samples from both Linköping and Vilnius were kept in the dark and handled in the same way with regard to temperature and time to analysis.
Samples for analyses of tocopherols, oxysterols, and malondialdehyde (MDA) were frozen at -70°C and analysis was performed within 5 months. The storage time for plasma, until analysis of lag time, never exceeded 8 days.
Each biochemical analysis was performed in 1 laboratory consecutively and in random order. The time from blood sampling to analysis was the same for samples from both cities.
Plasma Lipoproteins
All plasma lipoproteins were analyzed in
Linköping. Plasma concentrations of cholesterol and
triglycerides were analyzed by enzymatic
colorimetric methods (Monotest cholesterol
CHOD-PAP and Triglycerides GPO-PAP, Boehringer
Mannheim GmbH).
ApoA1 and B were determined with a commercial immunochemical kit (Turbiquant, Behring). ApoB-containing lipoproteins were precipitated with phosphotungstic acid and magnesium ions and the cholesterol in the remaining supernatant was defined as HDL cholesterol. LDL cholesterol was calculated according to Friedewald et al.9
LDL Oxidation
LDL was isolated and tested for oxidation susceptibility as
described by Kleinveld et al.10 In brief, saline was
layered on top of plasma in a centrifuge tube and
ultracentrifuged at 120 000g for 4 hours at 4°C
(Kontron TFT 45.6 fixed-angle rotor and Centrikon T-2070
ultracentrifuge). The LDL-containing fraction was collected and
ultracentrifuged for another 18 hours, and LDL protein was
determined the same day according to the method of Lowry et
al11 with BSA as the standard. The following day, 1
mL of the LDL layer was dialysed in the dark for 20 hours against 4 L
of PBS containing 10 µmol/L EDTA and 0.1 mg/L chloramphenicol,
and filtered through a 0.45-µm filter.
The LDL was diluted with EDTA-free PBS to a final concentration of 25
µg/mL protein and 1 µmol/L of EDTA and oxidation was initiated
with CuSO4 (final concentration, 5
µmol/L). LDL oxidation kinetics were monitored spectrophotometrically
by the change in absorbance at 234 nm at 30°C. The absorption was
recorded every 2 minutes for 4 hours. Oxidation rate and diene
production were calculated by using a molar extinction
coefficient for conjugated dienes of 29 500 L ·
mol-1 · cm-1, and
the oxidation indices were expressed as nmol ·
min-1 · mg-1 of LDL protein
and nmol/mg of LDL protein, respectively. The interassay variation was
5.1% for all oxidation indices.
Fatty Acids in LDL
LDL was isolated as described above. Lipids from LDL were
extracted according to Folch et al.12 These samples were
transesterified with HCl/methanol for 2 hours at 100°C. For
quantification of fatty acids in LDL, heptadecanoic acid was used as
internal standard. Fatty acid methyl esters were
chromatographed on a 50 mx0.25-mm CP-SIL 88 glass capillary
column (Chrompack). Analysis was performed on a Hewlett-Packard
5890 Series II Plus GC equipped with a flame ionization detector.
Helium was used as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1.18
mL/min with electronic pressure control. The injector temperature was
250°C and the detector temperature was 300°C. The oven temperature
program was as follows: 140°C to 190°C (18°C/min); 190°C for 5
minutes; 190°C to 205°C (1°C/min); 205°C for 10 minutes;
205°C to 210°C (18°C/min); and 210°C for 10 minutes. The
volume of injected sample was 1 µL, split ratio was 1:50. The fatty
acids were identified by using standard mixtures of known fatty acids
(Sigma Chemicals).
Serum Tocopherols and MDA
Three tocopherols, 
-, ß-, and
-tocopherol, were analyzed, according to
Öhrwall et al.13 In brief, 500 µL of ethanol with
0.005% butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) was added to 500 µL of serum.
After adding 2 mL of hexane, the 2 phases were separated and the
supernatant was analyzed by HPLC, using a Merck Hitachi pump
and a LiChrospher 100 NH2, 250x4 mm (Kebo) column. The
fluorescence detector had an excitation wavelength of 295 nm
and an emission wavelength of 327 nm. The injected sample was 20 µL.
The serum tocopherol concentration was divided by the sum
of plasma cholesterol and triglyceride
concentration.14
MDA was determined as described by Öhrvall et al.15 In summary, 750 µL of 0.15 mol/L phosphoric acid, 300 µL of water and 250 µL of thiobarbituric acid (TBA) were added to 200 µL of plasma. After boiling for 60 minutes, the mixture was cooled on ice. Methanol was added to the MDA–TBA mixture and 20 µL of the mixture was measured on an HPLC system by using a fluorescence detector with an excitation wavelength of 532 nm and an emission wavelength of 553 nm. Calibration was made against standard solutions of 1,1,3,3-tetraethoxypropane (Sigma).
Plasma Oxysterols
Plasma oxysterols were determined by isotope dilution mass
spectrometry as described earlier.16 In brief,
deuterium-labeled internal standards were added to 1 mL of plasma and
the sample was subjected to mild alkaline hydrolysis under an argon
atmosphere (0.35 mol/L KOH, 22°C, 2 hours). The reaction mixture was
taken to neutral pH and extracted with chloroform/ethanol. The extract
was applied to solid-phase extraction, to separate oxysterols from
cholesterol. The oxysterol fraction was treated with
pyridine/hexamethyldisiloxane/trimethylchlorosilane (3:2:1, by volume)
to convert alcohol groups to trimethylsilyl ethers and was finally
analyzed by gas chromatography mass
spectrometry. The oxysterols determined were 7- and
7ß-hydroxycholesterol, 7-oxocholesterol,
cholesterol-5, 6-epoxide,
cholesterol-5ß,6ß-epoxide, and 24-, 25-, and
27-hydroxycholesterol. The coefficient of variation for
7-hydroxycholesterol,
7ß-hydroxycholesterol, 7-oxocholesterol,
24-hydroxycholesterol, and
27-hydroxycholesterol was between 2% and 8%.
Statistical Methods
Results are presented as mean±standard deviation (SD).
Mann-Whitney U test was used for testing differences between
groups. Correlation coefficients were calculated with the Spearman rank
correlation test. Multiple linear regression analysis was calculated
with the LDL lag time as the dependent variable. All statistics were
calculated using StatView 4.5 for Macintosh.
Values of P<0.05 were considered to be statistically significant.
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Results |
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The participation rate in Linköping was 79%; 63 were invited, 11 refused, and 2 did not answer. The corresponding figures for Vilnius were 64% participation rate, 78 invited, 8 refused, and 20 did not answer. The numbers of participants (Vilnius/Linköping) with myocardial infarction or stroke were 7/2 and 2/0, respectively. Four men from Vilnius were receiving medical treatment for hypertension compared with 6 men from Linköping. Of the men from Vilnius, 16 were current smokers versus 17 from Linköping.
Men from Vilnius had a higher body mass index (BMI) than men from
Linköping but abdominal diameter did not differ. There was no
difference in systolic or diastolic blood pressure.
Plasma LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and
triglycerides were similar in the 2 groups and apoA1 and
apoB did not differ (Table 1
).
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Lipid-corrected -tocopherol in plasma was found in
significantly lower concentrations among men from Vilnius. The
corresponding -tocopherol concentration did not differ
although men from Vilnius showed a tendency to lower concentrations of
this vitamin. The concentration of ß-tocopherol in plasma
was lower in the Linköping group (Table 2).
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Mean lag time after in vitro oxidation of LDL in the Vilnius group was
75±14 minutes compared with 90±13 minutes in the Linköping
group (P<0.0001). There were no differences in the rate of
LDL oxidation or in diene production. Serum MDA did not differ
between men from the 2 cities (Table 2
).
Men from Vilnius showed lower concentrations of palmitic (16:0),
palmitoleic (16:1), and linoleic (18:2n6) acids in LDL than men from
Linköping (Table 3). The sum of all
fatty acids in LDL was also lower in the Vilnius group.
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Plasma 7ß-hydroxycholesterol was found in higher
concentrations among men from Vilnius than among men from
Linköping (12±5 and 9±8 ng/mL, respectively,
P=0.0011), whereas other oxysterols did not differ
significantly (Table 4).
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A multiple regression analysis with 7ß-hydroxycholesterol as the dependent variable, with the country as the first variable entered, showed that LDL oxidation rate (r=-2.28, P=0.0084) and total plasma cholesterol (r=1.83, P=0.007) contributed significantly to the concentration of 7-ß-hydroxycholesterol, but the R2 value was only 0.15.
Spearman correlation analysis for the 2 groups pooled showed
strong negative correlations between lag time and MDA
(r=-0.36, P=0.0008), lag time and
7ß-hydroxycholesterol (r=-0.31,
P=0.0023), and lag time and
7-hydroxycholesterol (r=-0.23,
P=0.022). Lag time was also positively correlated to
lipid-corrected -tocopherol (r=0.34,
P=0.0006) and -tocopherol
(r=0.32, P=0.0014) and linoleic acid
(r=0.26, P=0.0091); but when the groups
were analyzed separately, only linoleic acid and
-tocopherol were significantly correlated to lag time in
the Vilnius group.
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Discussion |
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In a previous study (LiVicordia I), 2 populations of 50-year-old men from Vilnius (Lithuania) and Linköping (Sweden) were compared with respect to serum lipids, serum antioxidants, and other factors that could be expected to explain the marked difference in CHD risk between the groups.4 There were, however, no differences in risk factors such as smoking, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, Lp(a), apoA1, or apoB100. However, total and LDL cholesterol were lower in Vilnius men. It was found that LDL from Lithuanian men was significantly more susceptible to oxidation than the LDL from Swedish men.
In the present study, LiVicordia II, it is shown that this difference is accompanied by a slightly higher mean concentration of the oxysterol 7ß-hydroxycholesterol in plasma from Lithuanian men than from Swedish men. This oxysterol has been shown to be a good marker of lipid peroxidation in vitro6 and a potential predictor of progression of carotid atherosclerosis in vivo.7 The higher concentration of 7ß-hydroxycholesterol in Lithuanians is interpreted as an indication of an increased in vivo lipid peroxidation. This oxysterol is a cholesterol autoxidation product and there is no indication that it should have an enzymatic origin.17 If this oxysterol were of dietary origin, it would be expected that other cholesterol autoxidation products such as the cholesterol epoxides and 7-oxocholesterol would also differ between the 2 groups of men. It seems likely that plasma 7ß-hydroxycholesterol is a more sensitive marker for in vivo lipid peroxidation than other markers such as TBA-reactive products (TBARs).7
Oxysterols are present in low concentrations in plasma and careful sample handling is important, to avoid artifactual oxysterol formation. Especially the cholesterol epoxides are formed very easily. In the present study the plasma concentrations of the cholesterol epoxides were low and did not differ between the groups of men, indicating that samples had been handled properly previous to analysis.
The relative amounts of cholesterol autoxidation
products in plasma from the volunteers in this study were in
decreasing order, as follows:
7-oxocholesterol>cholesterol-5,6-epoxide>7ß-hydroxycholesterol>25-hydroxycholesterol
(Table 4). Cholesterol-5ß,6ß-epoxide was found
in higher concentrations than 7-oxocholesterol, but this
oxysterol is easily formed during sample handling and workup and was
probably formed during the analytical procedure.18 Copper
oxidation of isolated LDL gave the corresponding order, as follows:
7-oxocholesterol>7-hydroxycholesterol>cholesterol-5,6-epoxide>25-hydroxycholesterol,
and the same order was found in copper-oxidized plasma.19
Although 7-oxocholesterol is the cholesterol
autoxidation product formed in highest concentration after
oxidation of LDL or plasma, 7ß-hydroxycholesterol was the
most sensitive marker of oxidation in the samples from the
volunteers.
The findings that LDL from Lithuanian men contains less linoleic acid,
and LDL-associated antioxidants (-tocopherol,
ß-carotene, and lycopene) than LDL from Swedish men, may be due to
different dietary habits of the 2 populations.
In the LiVicordia I study, it was shown that the 2 populations had
similar plasma concentrations of the antioxidant
-tocopherol. This is interesting, as it has recently
been reported that the plasma -tocopherol concentration
does not correlate to the LDL -tocopherol concentration
whereas plasma -tocopherol, ß-carotene, and lycopene
concentrations are strongly correlated with the corresponding
concentrations in LDL.5 The present study confirmed
that there was no difference in plasma -tocopherol
concentration between the study populations, but showed a significantly
lower plasma concentration of -tocopherol in the
Lithuanian population. In a recent report, smokers were reported to
have lower plasma antioxidant concentrations than nonsmokers, and
plasma -tocopherol levels were significantly lower than
in nonsmokers.20 Furthermore, smoking cessation resulted
in significant increases in total plasma vitamin C levels and in LDL
- and ß-carotene content. Although no change was observed in
plasma -tocopherol after smoking cessation, there was a
significant increase (34%) in plasma
-tocopherol.20 In the present study we
also observed lower plasma -tocopherol levels in smokers
than in nonsmokers with the 2 groups pooled (0.10±0.05 mg/mmol in
nonsmokers versus 0.08±0.06 mg/mmol in smokers, P=0.04),
but this was not significant when the 2 cities were analyzed
separately.
Smoking does not seem to explain the difference in plasma
-tocopherol concentration in the 2 populations studied,
as the number of smokers was similar in the 2 populations (16 Vilnius,
17 Linköping).
It has been reported that vitamin E supplementation as well as alcohol
intake decrease plasma -tocopherol.21 If
anything, vitamin E supplementation seems to have a beneficial effect
on CHD risk,22 23 and is unlikely to be the cause of the
decreased -tocopherol levels in the Lithuanian
population. The alcohol intake was similar in the 2 study
populations.4
The finding that the Lithuanian population with a high risk for
cardiovascular disease has a lower plasma
-tocopherol level is also interesting in relation to a
recent report that CHD patients have reduced serum levels of - but
not -tocopherol.24 Although
-tocopherol is less efficient as an antioxidant compared
with -tocopherol, it has been shown to be superior in
detoxifying nitrogen dioxide.25
Similar results were reported by Christen et al,26 and
they also found that -tocopherol was more efficient than
-tocopherol to inhibit peroxynitrite-induced lipid
peroxidation in phosphatidylcholine liposomes but not in LDL.
One could speculate that the lower -tocopherol
concentration in the Lithuanians could be caused by consumption in
connection with scavenging of NO2 either from
environmental sources or formed endogenously, eg, during
decomposition of peroxynitrite.
In conclusion, the higher plasma concentration of
7ß-hydroxycholesterol in the Lithuanian group suggests
the possibility of an increased in vivo lipid peroxidation. Whether the
lower linoleic acid and -tocopherol contents in LDL from
Lithuanians is a consequence of dietary habits or of an increased lipid
peroxidation cannot be answered by the present study.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by grants from the Swedish Medical Research Council (nos. 06962, 03P-11807, and 03X-3141), Stiftelsen Sigurd and Elsa Goljes Minne, Stiftelsen Svensk Näringsforskning, the Linköping University Fund, and Albert och Gerda Svenssons Stiftelse.
We thank nurses Susanne Wärjestam and Elisabeth Svedberg for technical help, laboratory analysts Britt Sigfridsson, Siv-Britt Babtist, Ylva Svensson, and Gunnel Almroth for help with lipid analysis, LDL preparations, and fatty acid analysis, and Carin Kullberg for help with data handling.
Received January 5, 1998; accepted September 14, 1998.
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J. Adachi, R. Kudo, Y. Ueno, R. Hunter, R. Rajendram, E. Want, and V. R. Preedy Heart 7-Hydroperoxycholesterol and Oxysterols Are Elevated in Chronically Ethanol-Fed Rats J. Nutr., November 1, 2001; 131(11): 2916 - 2920. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 L. Iuliano, F. Micheletta, M. Maranghi, G. Frati, U. Diczfalusy, and F. Violi Bioavailability of Vitamin E as Function of Food Intake in Healthy Subjects: Effects on Plasma Peroxide-Scavenging Activity and Cholesterol-Oxidation Products Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, October 1, 2001; 21 (10): e34 - e37. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. Li, H. Dalen, J. W. Eaton, and X.-M. Yuan Apoptotic Death of Inflammatory Cells in Human Atheroma Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, July 1, 2001; 21(7): 1124 - 1130. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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I. Spyridopoulos, J. Wischhusen, B. Rabenstein, P. Mayer, D. I. Axel, K.-U. Frohlich, and K. R. Karsch Alcohol Enhances Oxysterol-Induced Apoptosis in Human Endothelial Cells by a Calcium-Dependent Mechanism Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, March 1, 2001; 21(3): 439 - 444. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Porkkala-Sarataho, J. T. Salonen, K. Nyyssonen, J. Kaikkonen, R. Salonen, U. Ristonmaa, U. Diczfalusy, R. Brigelius-Flohe, S. Loft, and H. E. Poulsen Long-Term Effects of Vitamin E, Vitamin C, and Combined Supplementation on Urinary 7-Hydro-8-Oxo-2'-Deoxyguanosine, Serum Cholesterol Oxidation Products, and Oxidation Resistance of Lipids in Nondepleted Men Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, September 1, 2000; 20(9): 2087 - 2093. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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