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© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contributions |
Inflammation of the Atherosclerotic Cap and Shoulder of the Plaque Is a Common and Locally Observed Feature in Unruptured Plaques of Femoral and Coronary Arteries
From the Departments of Cardiology (G.P., A.H.S., D.-J.H., C.B.) and Functional Anatomy (G.P., W.J.A.v.W., S.P.), Utrecht University Hospital, Utrecht; the Department of Cardiovascular Pathology (A.C.v.d.W.), Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam; the Department of Pathology (H.L.J.M.T.), Elisabeth Hospital, Tilburg; and the Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands (A.H.S.), Utrecht, the Netherlands.
Correspondence to Gerard Pasterkamp, MD, PhD, Laboratory of Experimental Cardiology, Utrecht University Hospital, Room G02-523, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, Netherlands. E-mail g.pasterkamp{at}hli.azu.nl
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Abstract |
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Abstract—Retrospectively, plaque rupture is often colocalized with inflammation of the cap and shoulder of the atherosclerotic plaque. Local inflammation is therefore considered a potential marker for plaque vulnerability. However, high specificity of inflammation for plaque rupture is a requisite for application of inflammation markers to detect rupture-prone lesions. The objective of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and distribution (local versus general) of inflammatory cells in nonruptured atherosclerotic plaques. The cap and shoulder of the plaque were stained for the presence of macrophages and T lymphocytes in 282 and 262 cross sections obtained from 74 coronary and 50 femoral arteries, respectively. From most cases, 2 atherosclerotic arteries were studied to gain insight into the local and systemic distribution of the inflammatory process. In 45% and 41% of all cross sections, staining for macrophages was observed in the femoral and coronary arteries, respectively. Rupture of the fibrous cap was observed in 2 femoral and 3 coronary artery segments and was always colocalized with inflammatory cells. At least 1 cross section stained positively for CD68 or acid phosphatase in 84% and 71% of all femoral and coronary arteries, respectively. Only 1 femoral and 6 coronary arteries revealed a positive stain for CD68 in all investigated segments. Inflammation of the cap and shoulder of the plaque is a common feature, locally observed, in atherosclerotic femoral and coronary arteries. The high prevalence of local inflammatory responses should be considered if they are used as a diagnostic target to detect vulnerable, rupture-prone lesions.
Key Words: atherosclerosis • plaque vulnerability • plaque rupture • inflammation • macrophages
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Introduction |
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Rupture of the fibrous cap of the atherosclerotic plaque exposes the necrotic, lipid-rich core to the bloodstream and will subsequently trigger coronary thrombosis.1 2 3 Histopathologic data have led to the concept that inflammation plays a key role in the cascade of events that eventually result in plaque erosion and fissuring.4 5 6 This concept is supported by the observation that anti-inflammatory agents are able to reduce the risk of a first myocardial infarction.7 In addition, the serum levels of acute-phase reactants are increased in patients with unstable angina and those at risk for the development of myocardial infarction or stroke.7 8 9 It is unknown, however, whether the serum level of acute-phase reactants truly reflects plaque inflammation or whether it reflects a state of hypercoagulability by systemic inflammation.
Next to the search for a systemic serological marker for plaque vulnerability, new intravascular techniques like optical coherence tomography10 and the thermistor11 are being studied as potential tools to locally detect the vulnerable, rupture-prone lesion. However, the potential clinical application of plaque inflammation detectors presumes a high specificity of arterial inflammation for the development of plaque rupture. Generally, plaque ruptures are found to be colocalized with inflammatory cells.5 6 However, systematic studies on the prevalence of local inflammation in large series of lesions in atherosclerotic arteries are rare. In addition, to our knowledge, no histopathologic study has yet revealed whether plaque inflammation should be considered a local event or whether it is diffusely observed throughout the arterial system.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of inflammatory activity in the cap and shoulder region of unruptured, atherosclerotic lesions in coronary and femoral arteries. From most cases, 2 atherosclerotic arteries were studied to gain insight into the distribution of the inflammatory process.
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Methods |
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Within 24 hours after death, 31 coronary arteries obtained from 11 hearts were pressure-fixed with 4% formalin at 80 mm Hg in situ (6 male, 5 female; mean±SD age, 78.3±13.2 years). Owing to severe calcification, 1 left anterior descending coronary artery and 1 left circumflex artery were lost to dissection. Forty-three coronary arteries obtained from 15 other hearts were freshly frozen in isopentane without prior fixation (8 male, 7 female; age, 69.8±9.7 years). Coronary artery segments of 5 to 10 cm were dissected starting 1 cm distal from the ostium. The arteries were cut into smaller segments of 0.25 cm that were subsequently numbered from proximal to distal. From each segment, the side of the proximal cutting face was marked with East India ink. Odd-numbered segments were stained with Lawson's elastin stain. Even-numbered segments were stored for additional immunohistological stains (Figure 1
).
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Femoral arteries from 28 donated cadavers (15 men and 13 women; age, 80.3±8.7 years) were pressure-fixed within 24 hours after death with formal aldehyde in situ (pressure=age+100 mm Hg). The arteries were obtained from people who had willed their bodies to medical science after death. The femoral arteries were dissected and divided into numbered segments of 0.5 cm and processed in the same way as the coronary arteries.
The microscopic images of the cross sections stained with Lawson's elastic tissue stain were recorded on VHS videotape with a Sony video camera (3 CCD) for further image analysis. A ruler was used for distance calibration. Histological sections recorded on videotape were analyzed with a digital video analyzer as described previously.12 In the pressure-perfused artery segments, the lumen area and the area circumscribed by the internal elastic lamina (IEL area) were traced. The plaque area was calculated by subtracting lumen area from the IEL area. In the freshly frozen coronary artery segments, the circumference of the internal elastic lamina was measured. Subsequently, the lumen area and IEL area were calculated after assuming that the IEL was circular.
Selection for Staining
Selection of arterial segments for additional
immunohistochemical staining was based on arterial
geometry. For pressure-fixed coronary arteries (n=31), in each
artery the 0.25-cm segments that fulfilled 1 or more of the following
criteria were selected, and the opposite cutting face of the stored,
odd-numbered segment was used for additional staining and
analysis: 1 was designated the smallest lumen area; 2, largest
lumen area; 3, largest plaque area, 4, smallest IEL area; and 5,
largest IEL area.
For freshly frozen coronary arteries (n=43), in each artery, cross sections were selected that fulfilled the following criteria: 1 was designated the circumference of the IEL area that was >10% longer than the adjacent proximal and distal segments and 2, circumference of the IEL area that was >10% shorter than the adjacent proximal and distal segments.
For femoral arteries (n=56), in each artery 6 sites were selected for additional staining that fulfilled the following criteria: 1 was designated the smallest lumen area; 2, largest lumen area; 3, smallest plaque area; 4, largest plaque area; 5, smallest IEL area; and 6, largest IEL area. Two totally occluded femoral arteries as well as 4 arteries with negligible plaque were excluded from further analysis. Eight selected femoral cross sections that contained the least amount of plaque with no or hardly any plaque were also excluded from further analysis. Thirty cross sections selected according to the 6 categories appeared to be identical for 2 categories. Thus, a total of 262 cross sections obtained from 50 femoral arteries were selected after quantitative analysis, and these sections were subsequently stained and analyzed.
Staining
Paraffin-embedded segments were serially sectioned at 5-µm
thickness and mounted on different microscope slides. For all selected
cross sections, a mouse anti-human CD68 monoclonal antibody (Dakopatts)
and anti–acid phosphatase (AP) antibodies were used to visualize the
presence of macrophages. Cross sections obtained from all
femoral arteries and 31 of the coronary arteries were
additionally stained with anti-CD45RO to visualize T lymphocytes. To
render the CD68 epitope accessible to the anti-CD68 monoclonal
antibody, the transverse cross sections were boiled in sodium citrate
buffer (10 mmol/L, pH 6.0) for 15 minutes. Immunohistochemical
detection of the preferred epitopes was performed according to the
indirect horseradish peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase
technique.
Analysis
The sections stained with CD68 and AP were analyzed both
quantitatively and semiquantitatively. Thrombus formation is most
likely to occur due to erosion of the cap and cap rupture near the
shoulder of the plaque.1 2 3 4 5 6 Therefore,
analyses were specifically performed in these regions within
the plaque (Figure 2). In cases where
plaque had accumulated along the entire circumference of the
arterial wall, the location with the largest increase of
plaque thickness over the circumference was considered
representative for the shoulder.
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SIS-ANALYSIS 2.12.1 software was used for
computerized quantification. Sections were carefully studied, and color
thresholds were set and adjusted until the computerized detection
matched the visual interpretation. All stained cross sections were
semiquantitatively analyzed by 3 observers (G.P., A.H.S., and
D.-J.H.). For all stains, cross sections were semiquantitatively
arranged in 3 groups: For CD68/AP-positive cells: -, absent or minor
staining with negative or few scattered cells; +, moderate staining,
and clusters of cells with >10 cells present; and ++, heavy
staining, and clusters of cells with >20 cells strongly dominating
over 
-actin–positive cells. For CD45RO-positive cells: -, no cells
present; +, few scattered cells present; and ++, scattered
cells and clusters with >10 cells.
For the femoral artery, the extent of inflammation was expressed as follows: -, 0 or 1 cross section with signs of moderate or heavy inflammation; +, 2 through 4 cross sections with signs of heavy or moderate inflammation; and ++, 5 or 6 cross sections with signs of moderate or heavy inflammation. For the coronary artery, 3 selected segments were used for comparison of the extent of staining among arteries obtained from the same individual. Coronary arteries were not used for comparison among arterial segments when fewer than 3 segments had been selected in 1 of the coronary arteries. The latter coronary arteries were used, however, to study the prevalence of inflammation in all arterial cross sections. A total of 50 coronary arteries (n=150 segments) obtained from 25 hearts was used to compare the degree of staining among arterial segments. The degree of inflammation per coronary artery was expressed as follows: -, no cross section with heavy or moderate inflammation in the shoulder and/or cap of the plaque; +, 1 or 2 cross sections with signs of inflammation; and ++, all 3 cross sections showed staining for inflammation.
Statistics
All values are expressed as mean±SD. A P value
<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Kappa statistics was
used to calculate whether the number of inflamed cross sections in an
artery was associated with the number of inflamed cross sections in the
other (contralateral) artery obtained from the identical individual.
For the coronary arteries, the degree of inflammation in the
right coronary artery was compared with the degree of
inflammation in the left ascending coronary artery. In cases
where the left ascending coronary artery was lost during
dissection or when fewer than 3 cross sections had been selected, then
the left circumflex coronary artery was used for comparison. A
Student's t test was used to compare the computer-measured
degree of CD68 stain/AP stain among groups.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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A total of 1521 and 1175 cross sections obtained from 50 femoral and 74 coronary arteries, respectively, were analyzed. After selection based on vascular geometry, 262 femoral and 282 coronary artery segments were stained for the presence of CD68 and AP. The lumen areas, IEL areas, and plaque areas of these selected cross sections are shown in Table 1
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Table 2 shows the prevalence of heavy and
moderate staining for CD68/AP in the cap and shoulder of the
atherosclerotic plaques of femoral and coronary artery
segments, together with the computer-measured values of cytoplasmic
CD68/AP stain. In 45% and 41% of all cross sections, moderate or
heavy staining for macrophages was observed in the femoral and
coronary arteries, respectively. In 29 coronary and 32
femoral artery segments, CD68- or AP-positive stain was accompanied by
moderate or heavy CD45RO staining. Rupture of the fibrous cap was
observed in 2 femoral and 3 coronary artery segments. These
ruptured sites were always colocalized with CD68/AP-positive cells. The
remaining 114 femoral and 112 coronary artery segments in which
the cap and/or shoulder of the cap revealed CD68- or AP-positive
staining did not show evident ruptures of the luminal border of the
atherosclerotic lesion.
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Figure 3 illustrates the number of cross
sections with positive stain for CD68/AP and CD45RO per artery. Note
that at least 1 cross section stained positively for CD68 or AP in 84%
and 71% of all femoral and coronary arteries, respectively.
Thus, the absence of staining for CD68/AP in all selected segments was
observed in only 16% and 29% of the femoral and coronary
arteries, respectively. Inflammation was observed locally rather than
generalized; only 6% and 11% of all femoral and coronary
arteries revealed a positive stain for CD68 in all investigated
segments (Figure 3).
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Table 3 shows the association of the
degree of inflammation in 2 arteries obtained from the same individual.
Kappa statistics revealed that the degree of inflammation in 1 artery
was independent of the degree of inflammation in the other investigated
artery (for the femoral artery, kappa=0.162, P=0.30; for the
coronary artery, kappa=0.124, P=0.40).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Inflammation of the atherosclerotic lesion is considered to be an obligatory feature in a cascade of events that eventually lead to plaque rupture.1 2 3 The observation that the plaque rupture site is generally colocalized with inflammatory cells raised the hypothesis that systemic7 and local5 6 11 markers for inflammation may help to identify those patients at risk for the development of myocardial infarction and the lesions at risk for rupture. It is unknown, however, whether local inflammation is a reliable marker with high specificity for plaque vulnerability. In the present study, the prevalence of inflammation in the cap and shoulder of the plaque was investigated in femoral and coronary arteries obtained from patients who had not died of cardiovascular disease specifically. The number of plaque ruptures was therefore expected to be low.
The present study demonstrates that inflammation of the atherosclerotic cap and shoulder of the plaque is a common and locally observed phenomenon. Generalized inflammation or total lack of inflammatory cells throughout the artery was found to be rare. In addition, the degree of inflammation in 1 artery did not statistically predict the degree of inflammation in the contralateral artery obtained from the same individual.
Previous Studies of Inflammation in Unruptured Plaques
Boyle13 studied the extent of inflammation
in 351 coronary ruptured and unruptured plaques obtained from
83 patients. He found a prevalence of inflammation of 5% to 10% in
the superficial plaque of the control group. However, Boyle described
that inflammation was common (
40%) in the deeper layers of the
atherosclerotic plaque and was associated with lipid but not with
rupture. In the present study, not only the superficial plaque but
also the shoulder of the plaque was taken into account, which might
explain the observed differences in prevalence between our study and
the study performed by Boyle. The lower prevalence in the superficial
layer of the plaque as observed by Boyle may also be partially
explained by differences in inclusion criteria. Our selection of
patients was not based on cardiovascular history,
whereas in the control group of Boyle, patients with a history of
myocardial infarction were excluded.
Casscells et al11 studied 50 samples of carotid artery specimens with a thermistor and found that in 37% of all plaques, a temperature rise could be observed. Temperature differences were correlated significantly with cell density in the plaques. Temperature differences could be observed very close to one another (<1 mm), which might support our observation that inflammation is a very local phenomenon.
Visualization of the Vulnerable Plaque: Is Inflammation the
Right Target?
The present study demonstrates that inflammation is more of a
local rather than a diffuse phenomenon. It has been shown that systemic
markers for inflammation are increased in patients who develop
cardiovascular events.7 It is
unknown, however, whether the serologically raised level of reactive
proteins is a true reflection of inflammatory processes within the
arterial wall. The possibility that a systemic state of
inflammation in fact promotes the rupture process may also be
considered.9 If the level of reactive proteins is
to be used for risk stratification, than one should consider that
plaque inflammation is not an on-or-off phenomenon. It is likely that
inflammation occurs in all individuals; only the extent of the
inflammatory process may differ. It would therefore be interesting to
investigate in a postmortem study the relation between the extent of
inflammation within the arterial wall with serologically
measured levels of reactive proteins.
Although inflammation was found to be a common feature, this study does
not answer the question whether inflamed lesions are indeed at high
risk of rupture with subsequent thrombosis. According to Davies et
al,14 "silent" plaque ruptures are frequently
observed in coronary arteries. Therefore, a high prevalence of
inflammation within the atherosclerotic plaque does not imply that
these lesions are not prone to rupture. Prospective studies are needed
to find out whether plaques that show inflammation will develop rupture
and how many lesions that rupture will lead to significant luminal
narrowing by thrombus formation. Until now, no diagnostic
modality is commercially available that would allow such a study. One
may even wonder whether a positive outcome of such a prospective study
will have therapeutic consequences, since 30% to 40% of all
lesions will appear to be "at risk" in probably almost 100% of the
elderly population. Plaque rupture is a complex and multifactorial
process. Inflammation is an important denominator of plaque
vulnerability. However, assessment of additional parameters
that are related to plaque vulnerability and, probably more important,
subsequent thrombus formation, may help to detect lesions that will
cause clinically relevant syndromes.
Alternative markers for the vulnerable lesions at risk may be the percentage of atheroma within the plaque,15 cap thickness,1 3 11 and vessel geometry.16 Next to plaque formation, arterial remodeling is an important determinant of luminal narrowing.17 18 19 Recently, we observed that most immunohistological markers for plaque rupture, like inflammation, collagen and smooth muscle cell content, and the percentage of atheroma in the plaque, are more often observed in arterial segments that are compensationally enlarged20 compared with arterial segments that are shrunken.17 18 19 Vessel geometry can easily be studied using intravascular ultrasound. Therefore, it might be interesting to perform a serial ultrasound study in which lesion progression is related to the type of de novo atherosclerotic remodeling.
Limitations of the Present Study
Patients were selected irrespective of their
cardiovascular history and without knowledge of their
cause of death. Therefore, the prevalence of inflammation within
individuals could not be related to cause of death and risk factors for
cardiovascular disease. Also, the age of the patients
was high. We expected that at this age, the presence of
macrophages reflects progression of
atherosclerosis rather than initiation. The high
prevalence of plaque inflammation in this very elderly population was a
surprising finding and seems to indicate active progression of the
disease.
Only the superficial layer and shoulder of the plaque were studied. Plaque vulnerability is thought to be related to inflammation in the cap and shoulder of the atherosclerotic plaque. Therefore, the present study did not focus on the deeper layers of the atherosclerotic plaque. However, the prevalence of inflammation in atherosclerotic plaques did exceed 60% when the deeper layers of the plaque were also taken into account (data not shown). The present descriptive study does not provide an answer to the question why inflammatory cell infiltrates are observed locally rather than generally. Future studies are necessary to understand the local enhancement of the inflammatory response.
In conclusion, in both coronary and femoral arteries, inflammation of the vulnerable regions of the atherosclerotic plaque is a common feature of old age. Inflammation was not a general feature, however, because the extent of inflammation in one artery was not significantly related to the extent of inflammation in the contralateral artery. It might be postulated that because of its high prevalence, local inflammatory responses alone may not be a specific marker to detect lesions that will become clinically relevant.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by the Dutch Heart Foundation (grant 94-115 to G.P. and C.B.) and the Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands. G.P. is a fellow of the Catharijne Foundation, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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Footnotes |
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The content of this manuscript has been reported in part at the 70th Scientific Sessions of the American Heart Association, Orlando, Fla, November 9–12, 1997, and at the American College of Cardiology, Atlanta, Ga, March 29–April 1, 1998.
Received March 17, 1998; accepted May 27, 1998.
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A. Vink, A. H. Schoneveld, W. Richard, D. P. V. de Kleijn, E. Falk, C. Borst, and G. Pasterkamp Plaque burden, arterial remodeling and plaque vulnerability: determined by systemic factors? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., September 1, 2001; 38(3): 718 - 723. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Vink, M. Poppen, A. H. Schoneveld, P. J. M. Roholl, D. P. V. de Kleijn, C. Borst, and G. Pasterkamp Distribution of Chlamydia pneumoniae in the Human Arterial System and Its Relation to the Local Amount of Atherosclerosis Within the Individual Circulation, March 27, 2001; 103(12): 1613 - 1617. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. HEINLOTH, K. HEERMEIER, U. RAFF, C. WANNER, and J. GALLE Stimulation of NADPH Oxidase by Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein Induces Proliferation of Human Vascular Endothelial Cells J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., October 1, 2000; 11(10): 1819 - 1825. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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M. Cusack, S. Redwood, and J. Coltart Recent advances in ischaemic heart disease Postgrad. Med. J., September 1, 2000; 76(899): 542 - 546. [Full Text]
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 K. K. Koh Effects of statins on vascular wall: vasomotor function, inflammation, and plaque stability Cardiovasc Res, September 1, 2000; 47(4): 648 - 657. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Pasterkamp, E. Falk, H. Woutman, and C. Borst Techniques characterizing the coronary atherosclerotic plaque: influence on clinical decision making? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., July 1, 2000; 36(1): 13 - 21. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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