© 1996 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Contribution of an In Vivo Oxidized LDL to LDL Oxidation and Its Association With Dense LDL Subpopulations
From the Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology (A.S., J.H., H.H.), School of Pharmacy, and the Atherosclerosis Research Unit (A.S., H.H.), Division of Cardiology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif, and the Centro Regionale Specializzato per l'Arteriosclerosi (G.C., G.B.-B.), Servizio di Diabetologia, Ospedale Riuniti, Venezia, Italy.
Correspondence to Alex Sevanian, University of Southern California, Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, 1985 Zonal Ave, PSC 612, Los Angeles, CA 90033.
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Abstract |
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Abstract Oxidative modification of LDL is thought to be a radical-mediated process involving lipid peroxides. The small dense LDL subpopulations are particularly susceptible to oxidation, and individuals with high proportions of dense LDL are at a greater risk for atherosclerosis. An oxidatively modified plasma LDL, referred to as LDL-, is found largely among the dense LDL fractions. LDL- and dense LDL particles also contain much greater amounts of lipid peroxides compared with total LDL or the more buoyant LDL fractions. The content of LDL- in dense LDL particles appears to be related to copper- or heme-induced oxidative susceptibility, which may be attributable to peroxide levels. The rate of lipid peroxidation during the antioxidant-protected phase (lag period) and the length of the antioxidant-protected phase (lag time) are correlated with the LDL- content of total LDL. Once LDL oxidation enters the propagation phase, there is no relationship to the initial LDL- content or total LDL lipid peroxide or vitamin E levels. Beyond a threshold LDL- content of
2%,
there is a significant increase in the oxidative susceptibility of nLDL
particles (ie, purified LDL that is free of LDL-),
and this susceptibility becomes more pronounced as the
LDL- content increases. nLDL is resistant to
copper- or heme-induced oxidation. The oxidative susceptibility is
not influenced by vitamin E content in LDL but is strongly inhibited by
ascorbic acid in the medium. Involvement of
LDL--associated peroxides during the stimulated
oxidation of LDL is suggested by the inhibition of nLDL oxidation when
LDL- is treated with ebselen prior to its addition to
nLDL. Populations of LDL enriched with LDL- appear to
contain peroxides at levels approaching the threshold required for
progressive radical propagation reactions. We postulate that elevated
LDL- may constitute a pro-oxidant state that
facilitates oxidative reactions in vascular components.
Key Words: lipid peroxidation • peroxides • ascorbic acid • heme
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Introduction |
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Oxidative modification of LDL is widely regarded as a contributing factor to the development of atherosclerosis. Oxidation of LDL increases the cytotoxicity and atherogenicity of this particle.1 Similar forms of oxidized LDL are produced by cell-mediated as well as metal- and oxidant-catalyzed reactions.2 3 4 LDL oxidatively modified by these latter methods is considerably more cytotoxic than unmodified LDL1 and elicits a variety of vascular responses observed during atherogenesis. Elevated plasma levels of an oxidatively modified LDL have been observed in hypercholesterolemic animals5 and humans.6 This lipoprotein, designated as LDL-, is relatively enriched in free cholesterol, protein, triglycerides, and oxidized lipids and contains diminished levels of vitamin E.7 Analysis of human plasma samples indicates that LDL- levels vary from <1% to as high as 8% of total LDL, but there is little or no correlation between the percentage of LDL- and the content of total LDL, total cholesterol, or LDL-C plasma levels.6 However, the absolute amounts of LDL- are related to plasma LDL-C levels, indicating that LDL- concentrations can be much greater in hypercholesterolemic subjects.
Elevated LDL-C is regarded as a risk factor for atherosclerosis, and high levels of LDL-C appear to contribute to vascular injury.8 Enhanced production of oxidizing agents by vascular tissues or resident inflammatory cells may be responsible for the formation of oxidatively modified LDL found in vivo, eg, LDL-.1 9 Production of oxidized LDL is thought to be augmented by elevated LDL, which both stimulates oxyradical generation by vascular cells10 and serves as an enlarged target for oxidation. Although the origin of LDL- remains uncertain, species resembling this lipoprotein are produced after mild Cu2+-induced oxidation of freshly isolated LDL,6 are more susceptible to in vitro oxidation,11 and are also found in minimally modified LDL.12 13 LDLs are a heterogeneous population of particles that vary in size, density, electrical charge, and composition.14 15 16 17 One significant aspect of this variability relevant to atherosclerosis has been pointed out by the studies of Austin et al18 on the phenotypic patterns of LDL density and size distribution among individuals with and without coronary artery disease. With nondenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, various LDL subgroups were identified on the basis of size19 20 21 and traditionally divided into three main phenotypes: pattern A, characterized by a predominance of large LDL particles; pattern B, with a predominance of small dense LDL; and an intermediate pattern.22 Individuals with lipoprotein profiles enriched in small dense LDL (pattern B) were found to be predisposed to coronary artery disease.16 18
The reduced lipid-to-protein ratio and the elevated levels of lipid peroxidation products in LDL- compared with normal LDL6 are apparent similarities between the small dense LDL fraction and LDL--enriched LDL. Small dense LDLs appear to be more susceptible to oxidation,23 which suggests that small dense LDLs have diminished antioxidant potential and may contain higher levels of lipid peroxidation products that would facilitate further lipoprotein oxidation. Investigation of these properties of LDL- and dense LDL fractions was conducted through a series of analyses of plasma samples from volunteers visiting the Atherosclerosis Research Unit at the University of Southern California. Measurements of plasma LDL and LDL- were performed in conjunction with quantitative analysis of LDL- distribution among LDL density subclasses. Concurrently, determinations of oxidative susceptibility of LDL- versus normal LDL or LDL containing known amounts of LDL- were made by using LDL preparations from these subjects.
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Methods |
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Chemicals and Reagents
The following reagents were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co: EGTA, EDTA, hematin, ascorbic acid, and phosphate buffer. Buffers and media were obtained from GIBCO. DL-
-tocopherol (vitamin E) was
generously supplied by the Henkel Corp. All organic solvents were HPLC
grade and purchased from J.T. Baker Chemical Co, as was
CuSO4. Ebselen (PZ51) was obtained from Ciba-Geigy.
Linoleic acid hydroperoxide (13-hydroperoxy-9,11-octadecadienoic acid)
was prepared from pure linoleic acid obtained from NuCheck Prep.
Isolation of LDL From Plasma
Venous blood was obtained from fasting adult human volunteers
with total plasma cholesterol levels ranging from 160 to
210 mg/dL. Blood was collected into 10-mL evacuated tubes containing
EDTA, and plasma was immediately separated by
centrifugation at 1500g for 10 minutes at
4°C. LDL (
=1.019 to 1.063 g/mL) was separated from freshly drawn
plasma by preparative ultracentrifugation with a
Beckman L8-55 ultracentrifuge equipped with an SW-41
rotor.5 In addition, LDL density subfractions were
prepared by NaBr density gradient
ultracentrifugation by layering 3.5 mL total LDL
onto a NaBr solution consisting of 4.5 mL =1.055, 3.5 mL =1.040,
2.5 mL =1.024, and 2 mL =1.019 g/mL. Samples were run with
controls layered with the LDL buffer only from which densities were
determined gravimetrically after
ultracentrifugation. After
centrifugation, the following density fractions were
collected: >1.050, 1.050 to 1.040, 1.040 to 1.030, 1.030 to 1.020, and
<1.020 g/mL. Occasionally, the >1.050 fraction was collected as
two subfractions consisting of =1.065 and =1.065 to 1.055 g/mL.
Total LDL or LDL subfractions were dialyzed against argon-sparged
0.05 mol/L Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.2, containing 10 µmol/L EDTA at
4°C. Cholesterol levels were measured enzymatically with
a VP Super System instrument (Abbott) according to Lipid Research
Clinic methodology.24 The isolated LDL was kept in
argon-sparged EDTA-buffer at 4°C for no more than 24 hours before
further processing or was used as described below.
Preparation of LDL-
Separation of LDL- from unmodified LDL was
accomplished with anion-exchange HPLC (Perkin-Elmer Series 4
HPLC).5 The purity of the isolated LDL was checked by
means of rocket gel electrophoresis using agarose gels prepared with
10% polyclonal antibodies to apoB-100, apoA-1, and
lipoprotein(a)25 with commercially available
antibodies for these apoproteins (Apo-Tek, Organon
Teknika/Biotechnology Research Institute). The isolated LDL or LDL
density subfractions were then injected into the HPLC at an adjusted
concentration of 0.5 mg cholesterol/mL buffer. The eluent
was monitored at 280 nm, and peaks corresponding to nLDL or
LDL- were collected in 1-mL aliquots and used
immediately. The amount of LDL protein was determined for each peak
with the method of Lowry et al26 and was employed for peak
area calibration, from which the amounts of nLDL and
LDL- were routinely computed. Fractions were
collected into tubes containing 50 µmol/L EDTA in 0.01 mol/L Tris-HCl
buffer, pH 7.2, and those fractions containing LDL-
were pooled and concentrated, and all salts were removed by
centrifugation with Centricon 10,000
molecular-weight microconcentrators. This procedure causes minimal
amounts of aggregation, and the product is indistinguishable from
that produced by conventional dialysis. Samples were then diluted in
PBS, and the protein content was determined. LDL samples were then
suspended in PBS containing 10 µmol/L EDTA for determinations of
oxidative susceptibility. In some cases, samples were extracted for
determinations of total lipid conjugated diene levels as detailed
below.
In Vitro Oxidation of LDL
Fresh preparations of LDL samples were mixed and incubated with
10 µmol/L CuSO4 (net concentration) for intervals of up
to 5 hours. This provided a rapid and reproducible means for
determining oxidation kinetics. Alternately, samples were oxidized by
adding a hematin solution27 (final concentration, 2
µmol/L hematin). This was particularly useful for measurement of
oxidation kinetics under conditions not affected by EDTA. The reactions
were monitored continuously at 234 nm with a Beckman DU650
spectrophotometer and Beckman proprietary software in
temperature-controlled 0.5-mL quartz cuvettes (diameter, 1.0 cm)
containing 500 µg/mL LDL protein. The protein content was determined
via the absorbance at 280 nm and adjusted to an optical density (OD) of
0.50 (where 100 µg protein corresponds to an optical density of 0.10)
for all samples unless otherwise specified. Since the rate and extent
of LDL oxidation varies among samples from different donors, the degree
of oxidation was determined by continuously monitoring the increase in
conjugated dienes (OD=234 nm) over the incubation interval as described
by Esterbauer et al.28 This enabled measurement of the
oxidative lag phase, the rate of peroxidation during the lag phase
(considered as the antioxidant-protected phase), and the oxidation
rate during the subsequent propagation phase (considered as the
antioxidant-unprotected phase). Total peroxide levels in the LDL
were estimated by using a molar extinction coefficient of
2.54x104 for lipid conjugated dienes measured at the end
of the incubation period and checked against the amounts measured in
lipid extracts as described below.
Additional oxidation studies involved mixing LDL- with nLDL in proportions ranging from 1% to 5% LDL- (wt/wt protein). These mixtures were then subjected to Cu2+- or hematin-induced oxidation, and the rates of oxidation were determined as described above. Inhibition of LDL oxidation was tested by subjecting samples to Cu2+-induced oxidation in the presence of 100 µmol/L ascorbic acid (freshly prepared in water). In some experiments, LDL- was preincubated with ebselen and glutathione (50 µmol/L and 3 mmol/L, respectively), a concentration of ebselen that is in stoichiometric excess to the peroxide content of the lipoproteins, for 15 minutes before addition of the LDL- to nLDL and incubation with CuSO4. Under these conditions ebselen reduces all lipoprotein peroxides.29 At the end of the incubation period and after spectrophotometric analysis of oxidation kinetics, the samples were collected and dialyzed with Centricon 10,000 molecular-weight microconcentrators. All preparations were then adjusted to a fixed protein concentration with the Biuret protein assay (Bio-Rad) for analysis of LDL- content by HPLC as described above.
Measurement of LDL Lipid Peroxidation
The progress of LDL oxidation was determined either directly, by
monitoring formation of conjugated dienes in LDL suspensions via the
absorbance change at 234 nm as described above, or by measurement of
conjugated dienes at specified intervals on lipid extracts of LDL with
second-derivative UV spectroscopy.30 For the latter
measurements, samples of LDL containing 500 µg protein/mL were
extracted with 6 mL chloroform-methanol (2:1) after various periods
of incubation with the oxidizing system. The organic phase was
collected and saved, the aqueous phase was reextracted with another 3
mL chloroform-methanol (2:1), and the organic phases were pooled.
After evaporation of the solvent under a stream of nitrogen at room
temperature, the lipid residue was redissolved in absolute ethanol, and
the absorbance was monitored over the frequency range of 220 to 300 nm
against an ethanol blank. The extent of peroxidation was estimated from
the sum of the absorbance minima at 242 and 233 nm corresponding to the
cis/trans and trans/trans diene conjugate
isomers. Linoleic acid hydroperoxide31 was used to develop
a calibration curve. All scans were taken with a Beckman DU650
spectrophotometer. The content of lipid peroxides was estimated from
the total cis/trans and trans/trans conjugated
dienes with the use of a molar extinction coefficient of
2.54x104. Alternately, the lipid peroxide content of LDL
was measured by means of the oxidation of leucomethylene blue reagent
as described by Auerbach et al.32 The microtiter assay was
adapted so that 150 µL of the leucomethylene blue reagent was mixed
with 40 µL LDL (at 2 mg/mL) and allowed to react for 1 hour at room
temperature before measuring the absorbance at 650 nm. The amount of
peroxide was determined from a calibration curve with authentic
linoleic acid hydroperoxide as a standard.
Measurement of LDL Vitamin E Content
The content of vitamin E in the pooled nLDL and
LDL- fractions and the LDL density subfractions was
determined by extraction of samples according to the method of Bieri et
al,33 with minor modifications. Aliquots of plasma (500
µL) were mixed for 20 seconds with 50 µL internal standard
(-tocopherol acetate) and 250 µL 0.025% butylated
hydroxytoluene in ethanol. The lipid phase was extracted twice with
successive additions of 500 µL hexane containing 0.025% butylated
hydroxytoluene with agitation for 1 minute. After
centrifugation, the upper phases were collected,
pooled, and evaporated to dryness under nitrogen. The residue was
dissolved in 200 µL ethanol, and 20-µL aliquots were injected into
a Perkin-Elmer Series 4 chromatograph equipped with a
25x0.4-cm ODS-5S column (Bio-Rad Instruments). The column was eluted
with acetonitrile/tetrahydrofuran/H2O (85.5:9:5.5,
vol/vol/vol) at a flow rate of 0.9 mL/min for the first 15 minutes. The
solvent composition was then changed to
acetonitrile/tetrahydrofuran/H2O (80:15:5, vol/vol/vol)
over 2 minutes, held at this composition for 10 minutes, and then
returned to the original solvent composition for the final 2 minutes of
the run. The eluent was monitored fluorometrically by using excitation
and emission wavelengths of 290 and 340 nm, respectively. The areas of
the peaks corresponding to - and 
-tocopherol were
integrated with Axxichrom 747 chromatographic software. The
vitamin E content, including - and -tocopherol,
was determined by using established calibration curves by means of an
internal standard method.
Statistical Analyses
The data are expressed as mean±SE. The results shown derive
from four to six independent experiments, each measurement performed in
duplicate. Data for each treatment group were subjected, as indicated,
to ANOVA or Student's t test. Measurement of the trend
across the groups according to the LDL- content was
done by repeated measures ANOVA. Probability values <.06 are regarded
as being significant.
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Results |
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nLDL and LDL- Content in LDL Density Subfractions
Fig 1
shows a typical series of chromatograms
prepared from six LDL density subfractions. Although the amounts of
LDL-C differed in these samples, the content of LDL-
in panels C through F (corresponding to mean =1.040, 1.035, 1.025,
and <1.020 g/mL, respectively) was negligible, whereas most of the
LDL- was evident in density fractions shown in panels
A and B (mean =1.055 and 1.045 g/mL). Small amounts of
LDL- are seen in panels C and D, eluting as a peak at
24 to 26 minutes, and a peak at 38 to 39 minutes is also
present in all samples. The identity of the latter peak has not
been established. Fig 2 presents results from six
separate analyses of plasma LDL, each from different
individuals, where the content of LDL- is shown as
the percentage of total LDL protein in five distinct density fractions.
Most of the LDL- is associated with particles having
densities 
1.045 g/mL, with substantially less in the
lower-density fractions. The protein-to–LDL-C ratio for the
density fractions shown at mean =1.045 g/mL or less was similar and
calculated to be approximately 1.8:1 (mg/mg). On the other hand, the
protein-to-cholesterol ratio for the fraction with
mean >1.050 mg/L was approximately 8:1. Total
LDL- recovered from these subfractions was >90% of
that isolated from total unfractionated LDL, based on protein or
cholesterol determinations. The content of lipid
peroxidation products, measured as conjugated dienes and indicated
as ROOH, are also shown in Fig 2. Lipid peroxides were highest in the
dense LDL fractions and lower in the buoyant fractions. Indeed, the
content of total peroxides corresponded to the LDL-
content in each subfraction. The levels of vitamin E were also found to
be lowest in the most dense fractions (the concentration of vitamin E
in each subfraction is indicated along the abscissa).
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Table 1 presents the oxidative susceptibility of the
LDL subfractions represented by the oxidation lag times. In
this case, Cu2+-induced oxidation was measured by using
samples containing the same amount of LDL-C. Oxidation lag times were
longest for the density subfractions <1.020 and >1.050 g/mL;
shorter lag times were measured in densities =1.025 to 1.030 and
1.030 to 1.040 g/mL, and the shortest lag time was found in the
subfraction =1.040 to 1.050 g/mL. Fig 3 shows
representative rocket gels for the LDL density
subfractions described above. All fractions were positive for apoB-100,
thus confirming the identity of LDL (Fig 3, top). In addition, none of
the fractions were positive for apoA-I or apoA-II (middle and bottom,
respectively), indicating that HDL lipoproteins were below minimum
detectable levels and comprised an insignificant portion of the LDL
studied. This was particularly important in the case of the LDL
subfractions of >1.050 g/mL. As noted in "Methods," this
fraction included densities as high as 1.07 g/mL, in which possible
contamination by HDL may exist. There was no measurable lipoprotein(a)
in any of the fractions (data not shown). These findings indicate that
LDL- is largely associated with the dense LDL
fraction.
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Oxidative Susceptibility of LDL and
LDL-
LDL- is depleted in vitamin E content and
contains elevated amounts of lipid peroxidation
products.7 Because this lipoprotein was also found to
be largely associated with the dense LDL fraction, which is susceptible
to oxidation,23 studies were conducted to further
characterize the oxidative susceptibility of LDL-.
After screening individuals for plasma LDL- levels,
it became apparent that the LDL- content was related
to the tendency of LDL to oxidize when incubated with
CuSO4. A compilation of this data is presented in
Fig 4, which compares the content of
LDL- (expressed as a percentage of LDL protein) to
the lag time for total LDL oxidation for each subject. The content of
LDL- ranged from <1% to slightly greater than 6%
of the LDL protein, with most individuals having an
LDL- content ranging from 1% to 2.5%. A strong
inverse correlation was found between LDL- levels and
the oxidative lag time of the LDL preparation. Indeed, the data fit an
exponential curve (r=.678) with an inflection separating two
groups: one group had low levels of LDL- and long lag
times (<1.25% LDL-), and the second had high
LDL- levels and short lag times (>2%
LDL-). This inflection was found within the samples
ranging from 1.5% to 2% LDL-. Beyond a 2%
LDL-, a weak negative relationship was found
between LDL- content and oxidative lag times. The
relationship between short oxidative lag times and
LDL- content is supported by the finding that
isolated LDL- from these individuals had lag times
that were much shorter than isolated nLDL. A comparison of oxidative
susceptibility for nLDL versus LDL-, with
either CuSO4 or hematin as catalyst, is shown in Fig 5. Regardless of the oxidation method used, the
oxidative lag time for LDL- was less than any of the
nLDL samples or the total LDL.
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A comparison of the kinetics of Cu2+-induced oxidation for
LDL- and nLDL is provided in Fig 6.
The tracings represent a typical kinetic profile for LDL
oxidation monitored at 234 nm, wherein the oxidation rate is determined
during the lag phase and the duration of the lag phase is estimated
according to the method of Esterbauer et al,28 along with
the rate of oxidation during the propagation phase. The determination
of the lag rates, lag-phase duration, and rates of propagation (log
rate) were made from these tracings. No appreciable increase in
conjugated diene content was found for nLDL for periods of 1 hour.
Thereafter, a progressive increase in conjugated diene content took
place that represented the transition from the lag phase to
the propagation phase, which is clearly evident by 80 minutes. Under
these conditions, LDL- oxidized immediately after
CuSO4 was added, as shown by rapid accumulation of
conjugated dienes during the presumptive lag phase followed by rapid
propagation reactions that began by 50 minutes. The susceptibility
of LDL- to onset of oxidation prompted further
determination of its contribution to overall LDL oxidation as suggested
from the data in Fig 4
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Contribution of LDL- to LDL Oxidation
The susceptibility of LDL- to Cu2+-
or heme-induced oxidation may be based on a higher lipid peroxide
content, which is known to facilitate LDL oxidation.34
LDL- contains greater amounts of lipid peroxidation
products than nLDL and is labile to oxidation.7 11
Lipid peroxide content was determined from the levels of conjugated
dienes by second-derivative UV spectral analysis of lipid
extracts from LDL- and nLDL, which showed significant
differences at the time these lipoproteins were isolated (Fig 7). Upon further oxidation with Cu2+
and reanalysis after an arbitrarily established 1-hour
interval, large increases in lipid peroxidation products
(designated as ROOH in Fig 7) were measured in
LDL-, whereas small increases were found for
pure nLDL. This difference in oxidation rates is suggested from the
data in Fig 6. The content of peroxidation products accumulating in
nLDL after oxidation, representing the end of the lag
phase, which was usually 1 hour, matched the levels in
LDL- before oxidation (15 nmol ROOH/mg protein).
This level of peroxide in freshly isolated LDL- may
account for its nearly immediate oxidation after addition of
Cu2+. The content of lipid peroxides was also measured by
means of the leucomethylene blue reaction with similar results, ie,
nLDL before oxidation contained 9.7±3.9 and LDL-
contained 35.3±9.1 nmol peroxide/mg LDL protein. The small discrepancy
between values obtained by measurement of conjugated dienes and the
reaction with leucomethylene blue may be due to the presence of
oxidants other than fatty acid hydroperoxides in LDL that can generate
the colored methylene blue product. Measurement of vitamin E levels
before and after oxidation (Fig 7) showed that there was a rapid loss
for both nLDL and LDL-, even though nLDL
contained substantially more vitamin E than LDL-
before the onset of oxidation. It appears that oxidation of vitamin E
by copper is rapid and essentially complete by the 1-hour time point
selected for these analyses. The preferential oxidation of LDL
vitamin E by CuSO4 has been described.35
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The findings described in Figs 4 through 7 suggest that the oxidative
susceptibility of LDL may depend on the content of
LDL-, which provides catalytically sufficient
amounts of peroxide to stimulate propagation of lipid peroxidation.
This propagation can occur in nLDL as well as LDL-
when the lipoproteins exist as a mixed population, which occurs in the
small dense fraction of LDL (>1.055 g/mL). To determine whether
this is the case, purified nLDL (containing <0.5%
LDL-) was incubated in the presence of
LDL-, in which the content of
LDL- added ranged from 1% to 5%, ie,
representing the range of LDL- found in
the LDL samples from subjects. Whenever possible,
LDL- and nLDL from the same subject were used; in
cases in which the total plasma LDL of the subject was low, the
LDL- from a number of subjects was pooled to provide
enough material for study. The results show the effect of added
LDL- on the measured oxidative lag phase as well as
the rates of oxidation during the lag and propagation phases (Fig 8). A progressive decrease in the lag time was found
with increasing amounts of LDL- added to nLDL. The
large SE of this analysis, owing to the variability of LDL
oxidation among the subjects, required statistical analyses
that measured the trend across the groups according to the
LDL- content. This was done by repeated measures
ANOVA, which compares each successive addition of
LDL- to nLDL. Table 2 shows that a
significant decrease (P<.06) occurs in the lag time between
additions of 2% and 3% LDL- to nLDL. A significant
difference is also found between the groups containing 3% and 5%
added LDL-. Addition of LDL- to
nLDL also increased the rates of oxidation during the lag phase (lag
rate), in which a progressive increase in the lag rate of oxidation was
found with increasing amounts of added LDL-. A
difference was found with the addition of 5% LDL-
compared with nLDL alone (P<.06), and a significant
increase was found for the trend across successive
LDL- additions (P<.06). By contrast, no
effect of LDL- addition was found for the propagation
phase (log rate) of oxidation. Statistical analysis of these
data is also included in Table 2. Fig 9 compares the
oxidation kinetics for nLDL alone with that of nLDL to which was added
LDL- in 1% increments up to a total of 5%
LDL-. Fig 9 presents the results on four separate
LDL preparations from different subjects.
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The lipid peroxidation evident in these experiments was not due solely to that formed in LDL- for three reasons. (1) The amount of LDL- in the samples was too low to account for the levels of conjugated dienes produced during the analysis. Thus, a 2% solution of LDL- (ie, 10 µg protein) subjected to oxidation in the presence of 10 µmol/L Cu2+ produces unmeasurable amounts of conjugated dienes, whereas substantial amounts of conjugated dienes accumulate when 2% LDL- is added to a sample containing 480 µg nLDL protein per sample. (2) Collection of samples after oxidation and analysis by anion-exchange HPLC revealed that the amounts of LDL- were greater than the amounts added at the beginning of the analysis, increasing to proportions as high as 30% of total LDL (data not shown). (3) Pretreatment of LDL- with the glutathione peroxidase analogue ebselen36 resulted in a marked increase in oxidation lag times (44±14.6 minutes for nLDL+5% LDL- versus 75±16.1 minutes for nLDL+5% LDL- pretreated with ebselen) and a decrease in oxidation lag rates (0.0125±0.0041 OD234 U/min for nLDL+5% LDL- versus 0.0082±0.0043 OD234 U/min for nLDL+5% LDL- pretreated with ebselen). These findings indicate that LDL- stimulates the oxidation of nLDL, and reduction of LDL--associated peroxides suppresses the pro-oxidant effect.
Ingold et al37 report that peroxidative processes in LDL
are influenced by antioxidants outside the particle in the aqueous
phase. Prominent among these antioxidants is ascorbic acid, which
interacts with antioxidants in LDL, notably ubiquinone and vitamin E,
and where recycling of the latter during LDL oxidation has been
described.38 In the presence of 100 µmol/L ascorbic acid
there was a marked reduction in the oxidation lag rates when nLDL was
incubated in the presence of LDL- (Fig 10), even up to an LDL- content of
5%. A similar effect of ascorbic acid was found on the basis of the
measured oxidation lag time. In the case of nLDL the lag time increased
in the presence of 100 µmol/L ascorbate (67±8.2 versus >300 minutes
for nLDL versus nLDL+ascorbate, respectively), and the lag times in the
presence of 5% LDL- were also extended in the
presence of 100 µmol/L ascorbate (34±10.8 versus >300 minutes for
nLDL+5% LDL- versus nLDL+5%
LDL-+ascorbate). The protective effect of ascorbic
acid was not found when LDL- alone was subjected to
Cu2+-induced oxidation, as lag times were 28.3±5.05
minutes for LDL- versus 29.9±4.45 minutes for
LDL-+ascorbate.
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Discussion |
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The oxidative modification of LDL- is determined, at least in part, by its content of lipid peroxidation products, which are substantially greater than those found in unmodified LDL. LDL- contains greater amounts of thiobarbituric acid–reacting products7 and cholesterol oxidation products5 and lower vitamin E content than nLDL,7 findings consistent with the higher levels of lipid conjugated dienes and lipid peroxides measured in this study. Analysis of the phenotypic pattern of LDL density subclasses was not performed in this study, nor were the levels of glycation or sialylation39 determined, which could be related to the density, electronegativity, extent of oxidative modification, and susceptibility to in vitro oxidation. On the other hand, an interesting relationship between LDL- content and the oxidative susceptibility of plasma LDL density was found. Analysis of LDL isolated from 35 different subjects showed a strong relationship (r=.678) between the proportion of LDL- in total LDL and the oxidative lag phase. Individuals with <2% LDL- in total plasma LDL showed a strong negative correlation (r=.843) between the Cu2+-induced oxidative lag phase and the amount of LDL-. With an LDL- content >2%, a weak relationship was found between LDL- levels and the lag phase. This may be due to large variations in the rates of oxidation when LDL- levels are high and/or that the very short lag phases prevented accurate delineation of oxidative susceptibility under the conditions employed. Nevertheless, samples containing higher amounts of added LDL- were consistently more susceptible to oxidation. Based on the content of lipid peroxidation products measured in this study, nLDL contains three- to eightfold less peroxide than LDL- per milligram protein, depending on the assay method. The level of peroxides in LDL- may be sufficient to exceed the threshold required for the catalytic propagation of lipid peroxidation in LDL- particles (Fig 7
). Thus, the duration of the
lag phase for LDL- is very short. This level of
peroxide is similar to that formed at the end of the oxidation lag
period and may account for the peroxide threshold needed to facilitate
the propagation of peroxidation in nLDL, observed as the log phase of
oxidation. Indeed, the initiation of Cu2+-dependent LDL
oxidation is enhanced by trace amounts of hydroperoxides, which
facilitate propagation reactions.34 40 41 LDL resistant to oxidation has low levels of hydroperoxides (<0.5 nmol/mg LDL), clearly below the levels found in the oxidation-resistant nLDL fraction described in the present study. Based on the present findings, the peroxide threshold for facile propagation of LDL lipid peroxidation appears to be in the range of 10 to 15 nmol/mg LDL. This range is comparable to the threshold reported for hematin-induced peroxidation of unsaturated phosphatidylcholine liposomes,27 ie, 15 to 20 nmol/mg lipid. Interestingly, 50 µmol/L H2O2 was required to facilitate rapid oxidation of LDL by hemin.42 We hypothesize that peroxides at this concentration range are sufficient to sustain catalytic reactions involving Cu2+ or heme compounds and propagate lipid peroxidation.43
The predisposition of dense LDL to oxidation may not only be
attributable to the larger amounts of lipid peroxidation products
but also may be affected by a lower antioxidant capacity. The
antioxidant deficit may account for rapid rates of peroxide
accumulation upon addition of catalysts such as Cu2+ or
hematin. Our findings are in general agreement with those of Tribble et
al23 and others44 45 46 47 in that the most
susceptible particles were found among the denser LDL fractions, which
are enriched in lipid peroxides. However, depending on the method used
for ultracentrifugation and particularly the kind
of density gradient employed, variations in subfraction distribution
can be expected. Thus, the densest fraction (>1.050 g/mL) appeared
in our study to be relatively resistant to oxidation even
though it is enriched in LDL- and peroxides. Although
a single measurement was made on this fraction due to limited amounts
of material and since determinations were based on
cholesterol rather than protein content (due to low
lipid-to-protein ratios in the densest fraction), it is
difficult to conclude which other factors may have contributed to the
oxidation characteristics in this density subfraction. The kinetics of
LDL oxidation indicate that oxidation proceeds at more rapid rates for
LDL enriched in LDL- content, even during the lag
period. This is evident from the data in Fig 8, which show that
addition of LDL- to nLDL at 1% to 5% increments
caused an incremental increase in the rate of conjugated diene
formation during the lag period (lag rate). In contrast, the rate of
conjugated diene formation measured during the propagation phase was
unaffected by LDL- content. This effect can be
explained by the conventional notion that the lag phase
represents the antioxidant-protected period of LDL
oxidation, while the log phase represents oxidation during the
antioxidant-depleted period. The latter is likely influenced by the
availability of oxidizable lipids and the kinetics of radical
propagation reactions.
The pro-oxidant effect of LDL- is proposed as resulting from the relatively higher content of lipid peroxidation products that exist in this subpopulation of LDL particles. Circulating LDL particles, or more likely the LDL in the extravascular spaces (from which plasma LDL- may originate), are likely to undergo rapid oxidation when the content of LDL- is high. This oxidation appears to occur by interaction between LDL- and nLDL particles. Reactions involving peroxides originating from extrinsic sources have been proposed for LDL oxidation, as in the case of endothelial cell–mediated oxidation involving lipoxygenase acting on cell polyunsaturated fatty acids, the products of which may transfer to LDL.1 Evidence in support of "interparticle reactions" was indicated from experiments in which ascorbic acid produced a strong inhibition of LDL--mediated oxidation of nLDL. Protection of nLDL and samples consisting of nLDL and LDL- was found when ascorbic acid was present in the medium, but protection was not afforded to pure LDL-. The protective effect of ascorbic acid was recently described for the more oxidatively labile dense LDL subfractions,48 wherein differences between buoyant and dense LDL oxidation appear to be reversed in the presence of ascorbate. The findings indicate that ascorbic acid either facilitates the antioxidant activity in nLDL when challenged by Cu2+ in the presence of LDL-, prolonging the antioxidant activity of LDL-associated antioxidants such as vitamin E, or serves as an antioxidant/reductant in the aqueous phase (vide infra). Under these conditions, ascorbic acid could intercept radical propagating species, such as lipid peroxides, or derived radicals propagating from LDL- to nLDL. These two possibilities may be operating simultaneously since the pro-oxidant effect of peroxides on LDL oxidation has been shown to be inhibited by ascorbic acid.49 The inability to protect LDL- alone may be due to inadequate vitamin E and/or other antioxidants or to the levels of lipid peroxides, which may be sufficiently high to cause rapid propagation of lipid peroxidation upon Cu2+ addition. Direct reduction of lipid peroxides by ascorbate during the propagation phase is not described, although reaction with peroxyl radicals is thermodynamically possible. Ascorbic acid inhibits oxidation of LDL by Cu2+ or hemin.50 51 52 This antioxidant action may occur by chemical reduction of LDL-associated antioxidants, such as vitamin E, that in turn can interact with and reduce lipid peroxyl or derived radicals. Since depletion of vitamin E appears to be rapid after addition of CuSO4, it was difficult to determine the extent to which preservation of vitamin E serves to enhance the oxidative resistance of these LDL preparations.
The protective effect of ascorbate resembles that of selenoenzymes53 or ebselen.34 Ebselen functions as a mimetic for glutathione peroxidase and related selenoenzymes.36 In this capacity it reduces lipid hydroperoxides in all LDL lipids34 and prevents further lipid autoxidation. Ebselen effectively reduces LDL-associated peroxides if added in molar excess to the lipoprotein peroxide levels, where reaction with the peroxide is very rapid.52 A similar inhibitory effect is produced by phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase.41 The similar effects of ascorbate and ebselen suggest that facilitation of LDL oxidation by LDL- is peroxide dependent. The effect of ascorbic acid on Cu2+-induced LDL oxidation may also involve metal chelation. This chelation process likely functions by retaining Cu2+ in the aqueous phase or interacting with apoprotein-bound Cu2+, processes known to facilitate ascorbate oxidation and reduction of Cu2+.54 A reduction of LDL-- associated tocopheryl radicals leading to the elimination of the otherwise oxidizing radical species into the aqueous phase and recycling of vitamin E has also been described.37
According to our procedure for LDL isolation and density fractionation,
LDL- is associated largely with particles with
densities >1.040 g/mL. Small amounts were also detected in more
buoyant fractions, but in many samples LDL- was
essentially undetectable in the buoyant LDL, whereas it was always
found in the dense fractions. Although the oxidative susceptibility of
small dense LDL particles may be related to a lower content of
-tocopherol, other factors may play a more important
role since considerable amounts of -tocopherol are
present in the dense LDL fraction and the
-tocopherol levels appear to be comparable among the
subject groups studied thus far.23 55 The susceptibility
of dense LDL can also be influenced by the nature of dietary fatty acid
intake; oleic acid–rich diets confer significant protection to
dense LDL, whereas linoleic acid–rich diets increase its oxidative
susceptibility regardless of the -tocopherol
levels.44 A decreased vitamin E–to-protein ratio in
denser LDL but a normal vitamin E–to-lipid ratio was taken as
evidence that other factors, such as differences in fatty acid
composition,45 may account for the increased oxidizability
of dense LDL. However, others have reported that oxidative
susceptibility based on the vitamin E–to–LDL mass could not be
accounted for by enrichment in polyunsaturated fatty acid
content.46 Tribble et al23 found a lower free
cholesterol content in denser LDL subfractions and suggest
that a deficit in this constituent may impart a susceptibility to
oxidative modification. LDL enriched in LDL- appears
in general to be more readily oxidizable, which suggests that a
combination of factors, including antioxidant depletion, altered lipid
composition or structure,28 37 and increased peroxide
content and lipid-to-protein ratio, may contribute to oxidative
susceptibility.
Elevated levels of LDL- in total LDL and in certain LDL subpopulations appear to contribute to oxidative susceptibility. It is plausible that the preponderance of lipid peroxides found in the LDL- fraction may serve as catalysts for enhanced oxidative susceptibility. Thus, in the presence of LDL- ranging from 5% to 15% of the total LDL, a sufficient peroxide threshold could exist to facilitate LDL oxidation. We postulate that the denser LDL represents an older population of particles, which, by having a longer circulating half-life, have also experienced more contact with oxidants. Under conditions in which antioxidant levels are low and reducing equivalents are locally depleted and/or antioxidant enzymes are compromised, the rapid oxidation of dense LDL and lipoproteins similar to LDL- could promote further oxidation of lipoprotein particles.
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Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms |
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by grants HL50350 and ES03466 from the National Institutes of Health, NATO International Collaborative grant CRG 920513, and the Wright Foundation Research Award from the University of Southern California, School of Medicine.
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Footnotes |
|---|
1 Dr Avogaro died June 11, 1995.
Received August 7, 1995; accepted February 6, 1996.
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References |
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S. Parthasarathy, N. Santanam, S. Ramachandran, and O. Meilhac Oxidants and antioxidants in atherogenesis: an appraisal J. Lipid Res., December 1, 1999; 40(12): 2143 - 2157. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Ziouzenkova, L. Asatryan, M. Akmal, C. Tetta, M. L. Wratten, G. Loseto-Wich, G. Jurgens, J. Heinecke, and A. Sevanian Oxidative Cross-linking of ApoB100 and Hemoglobin Results in Low Density Lipoprotein Modification in Blood. RELEVANCE TO ATHEROGENESIS CAUSED BY HEMODIALYSIS J. Biol. Chem., July 2, 1999; 274(27): 18916 - 18924. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. K. Bielicki and T. M. Forte Evidence that lipid hydroperoxides inhibit plasma lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase activity J. Lipid Res., May 1, 1999; 40(5): 948 - 954. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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G. Gardner, C. L. Banka, K. A. Roberts, A. E. Mullick, and J. C. Rutledge Modified LDL–Mediated Increases in Endothelial Layer Permeability Are Attenuated With 17ß-Estradiol Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, April 1, 1999; 19(4): 854 - 861. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Jimi, N. Uesugi, K. Saku, H. Itabe, B. Zhang, K. Arakawa, and S. Takebayashi Possible Induction of Renal Dysfunction in Patients With Lecithin:Cholesterol Acyltransferase Deficiency by Oxidized Phosphatidylcholine in Glomeruli Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, March 1, 1999; 19(3): 794 - 801. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Bittolo-Bon and G. Cazzolato Analytical capillary isotachophoresis of total plasma lipoproteins: a new tool to identify atherogenic low density lipoproteins J. Lipid Res., January 1, 1999; 40(1): 170 - 177. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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B. Vedie, X. Jeunemaitre, J. L. Megnien, I. Myara, H. Trebeden, A. Simon, and N. Moatti Charge Heterogeneity of LDL in Asymptomatic Hypercholesterolemic Men Is Related to Lipid Parameters and Variations in the ApoB and CIII Genes Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, November 1, 1998; 18(11): 1780 - 1789. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. M. Smalley, N. Hogg, B. Kalyanaraman, and K. A. Pritchard Jr Endothelial Cells Prevent Accumulation of Lipid Hydroperoxides in Low-Density Lipoprotein Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, December 1, 1997; 17(12): 3469 - 3474. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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K. Tanaga, H. Bujo, M. Inoue, K. Mikami, K. Kotani, K. Takahashi, T. Kanno, and Y. Saito Increased Circulating Malondialdehyde-Modified LDL Levels in Patients With Coronary Artery Diseases and Their Association With Peak Sizes of LDL Particles Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, April 1, 2002; 22(4): 662 - 666. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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