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(Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 1996;16:178-185.)
© 1996 American Heart Association, Inc.

Articles

A Method for the Assessment of Hypoxia in the Arterial Wall, With Potential Application In Vivo

T. Björnheden; M. Evaldsson; O. Wiklund

From the Wallenberg Laboratory for Cardiovascular Research, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden.

Correspondence to Dr Tom Björnheden, The Wallenberg Laboratory for Cardiovascular Research, Sahlgren's Hospital, S-413 45 Gothenburg, Sweden. E-mail tom.björnheden@wlab.wall.gu.se.

	Abstract

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Abstract According to the anoxemia theory of atherosclerosis, an imbalance between the demand for and supply of oxygen in the arterial wall is a key factor in the development of atherosclerotic lesions. Direct in vitro and in situ measurements have shown that PO₂ is decreased in the inner part of the media, but the degree of hypoxia in vivo or the distribution of hypoxia along the arterial tree is not known. We applied a hypoxia marker, 7-(4'-(2-nitroimidazol-1-yl)-butyl)-theophylline (NITP), to develop a method for the detection of hypoxia in the arterial wall. Immunoperoxidase and immunofluorescence were used to detect the marker, and a clearly PO₂-dependent staining was observed in the media of rabbit and swine aorta in vitro. The cutoff PO₂ level was probably around 2 to 3 mm Hg. In experimental atherosclerotic lesions in the rabbit the marker seemed to bind to foam cells that were already at a higher surrounding PO₂, which might reflect a higher local oxygen consumption. The binding of the marker to endothelial cells was not PO₂ dependent. One explanation for this finding could be that the marker was metabolized via a non–oxygen-dependent pathway in these cells. We propose that this method may be used to assess arterial wall hypoxia in vivo. Furthermore, the spatial resolution allows the detection of local variations within the arterial tree.

Key Words: atherosclerosis • artery • hypoxia • hypoxia marker

	Introduction

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The need for oxygen in the arterial wall is satisfied via diffusion from the luminal blood flow and the vasa vasora in the adventitia. The relation between the oxygen demand and the available diffusion capacity will be decisive for the local energy balance. During atherogenesis the thickness of the arterial wall increases, leading to an impaired diffusion capacity. Furthermore, experimental data indicate that the oxygen consumption of the arterial wall increases during atherogenesis.^{1 2} It is possible that an energy imbalance may arise that would lead to local metabolic disturbances that may endanger regression or even result in progression of the atherosclerotic process with the formation of a necrotic core. Based on this, Hueper³ formulated the anoxemia theory of atherosclerosis, which was later explored by several groups.^{4 5 6}

The oxygen concentration in the arterial wall has been measured directly in animals in in vitro and in situ systems,^{7 8 9 10} and these measurements demonstrate that PO₂ decreases with the distance from the lumen and adventitia, reaching a minimum of 20 to 50 mm Hg in the media. Although one may question whether such a modest reduction of PO₂ may influence arterial wall metabolism in a decisive way, it should be kept in mind that these measurements were made on arteries much thinner than the human aorta. Furthermore, no measurements have been made in vivo.

Thus it seems that the validity of the presented hypothesis revolves around the crucial question: Does arterial wall hypoxia exist in vivo? And if so, is the degree of hypoxia sufficient to lead to decisive changes in arterial wall metabolism?

To address this issue, we tested a system for the demonstration of arterial wall hypoxia with a potential in vivo application. The system is based on a hypoxia marker originally developed by Hodgkiss et al¹¹ to detect hypoxia in tumors. In this system a nitroimidazole derivative with a theophylline ligand, NITP, is used. When this compound is taken up intracellularly it undergoes nitroreduction and oxidation in a futile cycle, provided that oxygen is present. Under hypoxia, the futile cycle is broken and aggressive radicals arise, bind to cellular components, and become trapped. The theophylline residue may then be detected by immunological methods.

The main purpose of the present study was to test this method on arterial tissue of varying thicknesses incubated at varying degrees of hypoxia. Our results indicate that at least in vitro, zones of hypoxia may be detected in the media already at a surrounding O₂ concentration of 21% in pig aorta and 6% in rabbit aorta. Since NITP¹¹ and similar compounds^{12 13} have been used in vivo in animals and even humans,¹⁴ we propose that this technique may be used to assess arterial hypoxia in vivo.

	Methods

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Medium, Chemicals, and Antibodies
Eagle's minimum essential medium with 25 mmol/L HEPES buffer, pH 7.4, (Serva Feinbiochemica) was used throughout the study.

NITP was kindly provided by Dr R.J. Hodgkiss, Gray Laboratory of the Cancer Research Campaign, Mount Vernon Hospital, Northwood, UK. To prepare the 0.25 mmol/L NITP solution that was used in the study, 0.063 mmol NITP was first dissolved in 1 mL dimethyl sulfoxide (Sigma Chemical Co) and then added to 250 mL medium. All NITP solutions were freshly prepared before use.

Sheep anti-theophylline antibody (theophylline-8–bovine serum albumin) was purchased from Biogenesis Inc. Biotinylated rabbit anti-sheep IgG antibody, fluorescein avidin D, biotinylated goat anti–avidin D, and normal rabbit serum were all obtained from Vector Laboratories. Avidin–horseradish peroxidase complex was prepared from reagents A and B as described in the Vectastain ABC kit (Vector Laboratories). DAB was purchased from Amersham International; AEC was from Sigma. Mayer's acid hematoxylin was obtained from Apoteksbolaget, and dry milk powder was from Semper. Vectashield was used as a mounting medium (Vector Laboratories). Glass slides were coated with 0.1% poly-L-lysine (Sigma) before use.

Animals
Eight male New Zealand White rabbits were fed standard rabbit chow with (n=3) or without (n=5) the addition of 1% cholesterol to induce experimental atherosclerosis. Rabbits were anesthetized by administration of 1:1 Ketalar (50 mg/mL; Parke-Davis) and Rompun Vet (20 mg/mL; Bayer AG), 0.35 mL/kg IV, and 0.17 mL/kg IV every 15 minutes thereafter.

The thoracic aorta was removed under the aforementioned protocol anesthesia, by using a technique that has been developed to ensure maximum tissue integrity.¹⁵ The major part of the adventitia was dissected away, and the aorta was divided into 5-mm segments and put into vials with incubation medium. Approximately 200 sections from 25 aortic segments were examined.

During general anesthesia (Stresnil [Janssen Pharmaceuticals] at 40 mg/mL and 2 mL/10 kg IM as premedication; then Diprivan [ICI Pharmaceuticals] at 10 mg/mL and 2 mL/10 kg IV initially plus 2 mL/10 kg IV every 15 to 20 minutes thereafter), a 10-cm-long piece of thoracic aorta was obtained from a domestic swine that had been raised under standard conditions. The aorta was rinsed with oxygenated medium (75% O₂ and 1% CO₂ in nitrogen), and the major part of the adventitia was removed. The tissue was divided into 1-cm² pieces and distributed in vials with incubation medium.

Incubation Conditions
Rabbit aortic segments with or without experimental atherosclerosis were incubated for 3 hours at 37°C in 0.25 mmol/L NITP medium equilibrated with 5% CO₂ and 0%, 3%, 6%, 21%, or 75% O₂ in nitrogen. Pig aortic specimens were incubated under similar conditions at 3%, 10%, 21%, and 75% O₂ concentrations.

As negative controls, tissue specimens were incubated at 3% O₂ in medium without NITP.

Immunohistochemistry
After incubation, specimens were fixed in 4% buffered formaldehyde, pH 7.0, for 1 to 2 days. Paraffin sections (5 µm) were made and transferred to glass slides. On each slide samples were placed together with one positive and one negative control. Specimens incubated in medium equilibrated with 3% O₂ were used as positive controls, since such incubations had given a distinct immunoreaction in preliminary experiments. Sections incubated in medium without NITP were used as negative controls.

After deparaffination and rehydration to buffer in a graded series of alcohols, sections were prepared for staining with immunoperoxidase or immunofluorescence. Endogenous peroxidase activity in sections intended for immunoperoxidase staining was blocked with 0.3% H₂O₂ in PBS, pH 7.4, for 20 minutes. Except for the initial step of peroxidase inactivation and the preparation of the avidin–horseradish peroxidase complex, all dilutions were made in PBS, pH 7.4, with 5% (wt/wt) dry milk powder.

The procedures to block nonspecific binding, detect the theophylline ligand of the NITP, and couple the secondary biotinylated antibody were common to both the immunoperoxidase and immunofluorescence methods, ie, 20 minutes in normal rabbit serum (1:50) followed by 60 minutes with primary sheep anti-theophylline antibody (1:2000 for peroxidase, 1:5000 for fluorescence). After this the preparations were rinsed three times for 5 minutes each in PBS with 5% dry milk powder, pH 7.4, before being treated for 30 minutes with secondary biotinylated rabbit anti-sheep IgG antibody (1:100) and rinsed three times for 5 minutes each in PBS with 5% dry milk powder.

Immunoperoxidase and Immunofluorescence Testing
Avidin–horseradish peroxidase complex was freshly prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions, and sections were incubated for 60 minutes. Peroxidase substrate (DAB 1.3 mmol/L and 0.01% H₂O₂ in 50 mmol/L Tris buffer, pH 7.5) was added for 10 minutes, and sections were rinsed in tap water for 5 minutes followed by 20 minutes of counterstaining in Mayer's acid hematoxylin. After rinsing in tap water the preparations were mounted.

In some preliminary studies AEC was used as the peroxidase substrate (60 mg AEC dissolved in 15 mL dimethylformamide to 210 mL of 0.1 mmol/L NaAc, pH 5.2).

To enhance the immunofluorescence signal, consecutive 30-minute incubations were made with fluorescein–avidin D (1:500), biotinylated goat anti–avidin D antibody (1:100 or 5 µg/mL), and fluorescein–avidin D (1:500) once again. Sections were mounted after being rinsed in tap water.

Microscopy
Bright-field microscopy for immunoperoxidase detection was performed on an Axiophot microscope (Carl Zeiss). Immunofluorescence was studied on the same microscope by using filter set 16 (BP 485/20, FT 510, LP 520) (Carl Zeiss).

Establishment of Experimental Conditions
In a number of preliminary experiments optimal conditions during tissue incubation and immunoperoxidase and immunofluorescence procedures were tested.

With an NITP concentration of 0.1 mmol/L the staining was weak, whereas 0.5 mmol/L did not seem to increase the observed immunoreactions compared with the 0.25 mmol/L that was selected for the further experiments. This concentration is well below toxicity levels for cells in culture. In V79 Chinese hamster cells more than 90% of them were viable under hypoxia at 0.5 mmol/L of NITP after 3 hours.¹¹

The duration of the incubation varied between 0.5 and 6 hours. Half an hour resulted in poor staining and 1.5 hours gave varying results, but 6 hours did not seem to increase the detectability compared with the 3 hours that was judged optimal. The chosen incubation time agrees with experiments on V79 Chinese hamster cells in culture.¹¹

To arrive at the selected incubation times, antibody concentrations, and staining procedures, an array of experiments was performed that will not be accounted for here. It suffices to mention that the alternative peroxidase substrate that was tested, AEC, which yields a crimson stain, seemed to be less easy to detect than DAB. Different filter combinations for detecting fluorescence were also tested. It seemed that using a narrower wavelength band of the activating light (BP 485/20), although it gave a less intense FITC emission, resulted in a better discrimination between the brownish yellow of the elastin autofluorescence and the greenish yellow of the FITC fluorescence.

	Results

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Sections from normal rabbit aorta that had been incubated at a 3% O₂ concentration for 3 hours in NITP-containing medium exhibited a zone of immunoreaction in the middle portion of the media. In immunoperoxidase sections brown staining was seen associated with the cytoplasm and the nuclei of the medial SMCs (Fig 1D). The brownish yellow autofluorescence of the elastic laminae was easy to distinguish from the specific FITC immunofluorescence similarly associated with the cytoplasm and nuclei of the medial SMCs (Fig 1C). The zone was 5 to 7 elastic lamellae wide (140 µm), and the distance from the lumen corresponded to 5 or 6 elastic lamellae (100 µm). In sections that had been incubated at 0% O₂ the peroxidase staining and the immunofluorescence were more patchy and widespread (Fig 1E and 1F). At a 6% O₂ concentration a faint, narrow band with peroxidase staining and specific fluorescence could be discerned, but not in all sections. At 21% O₂ no immunoreaction could be detected in the media (Fig 1A and 1B). Fluorescence and peroxidase staining were also regularly seen in the endothelium (Figs 1, 2A, and 2B) and in the fat cells in the adventitia. However, this reaction did not depend on the degree of hypoxia during the incubations, since it appeared over the whole range of O₂ concentrations, ie, 0% to 75%. In the sections that had been incubated in the absence of NITP no specific fluorescence or peroxidase reaction was seen.

View larger version (93K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Photomicrographs showing 5-µm sections of normal rabbit aorta that were incubated for 3 hours in culture medium containing 0.25 mmol/L NITP at 21% (A and B), 3% (C and D), and 0% (E and F) O2 concentrations. The theophylline residue of the NITP was detected via enhanced immunofluorescence by using FITC as the fluorochrome (A, C, and E) or immunoperoxidase reaction with DAB as the substrate (B, D, and F). In the latter case nuclei were counterstained with Mayer's acid hematoxylin. At a 3% O2 concentration a distinct immunoreaction is seen in the middle portion of the media with fluorescence (C) and brown peroxidase staining (D) in the cytoplasm and nuclei of a majority of the SMCs, indicating hypoxic conditions. At 0% O2 the fluorescence and staining (E and F) are widely scattered, indicating extensive hypoxia, and immunoreaction is also discernible close to the endothelial lining and adventitia. In aortic segments incubated at 21% O2 only elastin autofluorescence is seen in the media (A), and no peroxidase staining could be found (B). At all three oxygen concentrations there is some fluorescence in the endothelium (arrow) and cells in the adventitia (A, C, and E). Similarly, peroxidase staining is seen in the endothelial cells and cells in the adventitia as well (B, D, and F) (bars=100 µm).

View larger version (70K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Photomicrographs showing 5-µm sections of normal rabbit aorta that were incubated for 3 hours in culture medium containing 0.25 mmol/L NITP at O2 concentrations of 3% (A) and 0% (B). The theophylline residue of the NITP was detected via immunofluorescence by using FITC as the fluorochrome (A) or immunoperoxidase with DAB as the substrate (B). The endothelial cells show a marked immunoreaction, whereas only a faint or no reaction is seen in adjacent SMCs (bars=20 µm).

In sections from rabbit aorta with experimental atherosclerosis the basic pattern of immunoreaction in the media was the same, ie, a faint band of peroxidase staining or fluorescence in sections from tissue incubated at a 6% O₂ concentration (Fig 3B) and a wider zone in sections incubated at 3% O₂ (Fig 3C and 3D).

View larger version (113K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. Photomicrographs showing 5-µm sections of rabbit aorta with experimental atherosclerosis that were incubated for 3 hours at O2 concentrations of 21% (A), 6% (B), and 3% (C and D) in culture medium containing 0.25 mmol/L NITP. The theophylline residue of the NITP was detected by FITC immunofluorescence (A and C) or immunoperoxidase with DAB as the substrate (B and D). In the latter case nuclei were counterstained with Mayer's acid hematoxylin. The photomicrographs show a plaque with the adjacent media. The inner (i) and outer (o) boundaries of the media are marked. At a 21% O2 concentration there was a weak fluorescence in some of the foam cells in the lesion (arrow in A), whereas only autofluorescence of the elastic laminae was seen in the media. At 6% O2 a faint band of brown immunoperoxidase staining was seen in the middle portion of the media (open arrows in B), and a weak staining was seen in some of the foam cells in the lesion (filled arrow). At 3% O2 there was intense fluorescence (C) and brown immunoperoxidase staining (D) in many of the foam cells in the lesion. In the adjacent media the fluorescence and immunoperoxidase staining were less intense, but in the deeper portion, again a zone with more pronounced immunoreaction was seen. At all oxygen concentrations the endothelial cells show distinct fluorescence and peroxidase staining (double arrows) (bars=100 µm).

In rabbit intimal lesions weak peroxidase staining and fluorescence were seen in occasional cells, presumably foam cells, after incubation at 21% and 6% O₂ concentrations (Fig 3A and 3B). More cells showed immunoreaction at 3%, and at several locations intense staining and fluorescence were seen in a majority of the cells (Fig 3C and 3D). Peroxidase staining and fluorescence were also observed in the endothelium and adventitial fat.

In pig aorta, again the basic pattern of immunoreaction was the same; ie, peroxidase staining and immunofluorescence were observed as a band in the inner part of the media. However, the reaction was seen at an O₂ concentration of 21% in the surrounding medium (Fig 4E), and the zone was much wider at 10% and 3% O₂ concentrations than in rabbit aorta (Fig 4B and 4C). At 75% O₂ concentration no immunoreaction was observed (Fig 4A and 4D). The distance from the luminal surface to the immunoreaction was about 15, 30, and 45 elastic lamellae wide (200, 400, and 600 µm) in sections from pig aorta incubated in 3%, 10%, and 21% O₂, respectively, as judged from immunofluorescence, where the elastic laminae were easy to distinguish. It is noteworthy that the width at the 3% O₂ concentration was similar to that found in rabbit aorta and that the width at the 21% O₂ concentration is more than twice the thickness of the rabbit aorta. No specific fluorescence or peroxidase reaction was seen in the sections that had been incubated in the absence of NITP.

View larger version (127K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 4. Photomicrographs showing 5-µm sections of normal pig aorta that were incubated for 3 hours in culture medium containing 0.25 mmol/L NITP at O2 concentrations of 75% (A and D), 21% (E), 10% (B), and 3% (C). The theophylline residue of the NITP was detected via FITC immunofluorescence (A through C) or immunoperoxidase with DAB as the substrate (D and E). In the latter case nuclei were counterstained with Mayer's acid hematoxylin. The endothelium faces upward and is marked with arrows in some of the pictures. In the tissues incubated at 21%, 10%, and 3% O2 a central zone with immunoreaction is seen in the media, indicating hypoxic conditions. When tissue was incubated at 75% O2 no immunofluorescence or immunoperoxidase staining could be seen. The zone close to the intima, where no immunoreaction was seen, is wider in segments incubated at 10% O2 than 3% and is wider still at 21% O2. (Note that the magnification in E is half that of B and C). In tissue incubated at 75% O2 no immunoperoxidase staining was seen, but elastine autofluorescence is observed (bars=200 µm).

In contrast to the rabbit specimens, no staining or fluorescence was observed in the pig endothelium.

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
We have presented a method for the demonstration of arterial wall hypoxia in vitro by using immunohistochemical techniques. We propose that this method may be used to assess the degree of hypoxia in the arterial wall in vivo. In this way some of the crucial questions may be addressed that could validate the anoxemia theory of atherosclerosis.³

Nitroimidazole and its derivatives indicate cellular hypoxia in many different systems in vivo and in vitro, and several modes of detection have been applied. -Emitting^{16 17} and ß-emitting^{18 19} probes have been used as well as immunoreactive ligands of different compositions.^{11 20} In our case nitroimidazole with a theophylline ligand was chosen, and immunoperoxidase and immunofluorescence were used for detection.

In tumor spheroids and biopsies^{20 21 22} a typical pattern has been described, with a clear zone of 100 to 150 µm close to the oxygen reservoir (medium/blood) followed by a zone of detectable marker. Our main findings fit well with this picture, ie, a clear zone in the media close to the surrounding medium and immunoreaction indicative of the hypoxia marker deeper in the tissue. When the oxygen concentration was increased in the medium a wider clear zone was observed and vice versa, suggesting that a detectable marker started to appear at a depth where the diffusing oxygen had been consumed and PO₂ decreased below a certain level.

Direct in situ polarographic measurements on arteries from dogs and rabbits indicate that the oxygen concentration decreases from 90 mm Hg in the lumen to 40 mm Hg at 80 µm^{9 23} and to 20 mm Hg at 150 µm,^{24 25} ie, that PO₂ decreases around 50 mm Hg at the first 80 µm from the lumen and another 20 mm Hg at the next 70 µm.

In our incubations in 3% O₂ (23 mm Hg) immunoreaction was observed at depths of 100 (rabbit) and 200 (pig) µm. At 10% and 21% O₂ (76 and 160 mm Hg) immunoreaction was observed at 400 and 600 µm, respectively. Judging from the direct measurements,^{9 23 24 25} PO₂ would be close to zero at these depths. This suggests that the marker we used could be detected where conditions were close to anoxic. On the other hand, during our incubations the aortic segments were at rest, and no oxygen was consumed for mechanical work, which means that the PO₂ gradient probably was less steep than in the in situ preparations. PO₂ might therefore have been higher than the direct measurements would indicate. Also, by using the same probe, Hodgkiss et al¹¹ have observed that as much as 30% of isolated cells show immunofluorescence at a 10% O₂ concentration and 50% at 0.5% O₂. With this in mind it is likely that the cutoff point for immunodetection of NITP in the arterial media is in the range of 2 to 3 mm Hg.

The covalent binding of nitroimidazole derivatives to intracellular structures depends on the presence of nitroreductase activity (most importantly that of cytochrome P-450 reductase²⁶ ), which generates the reactive intermediates, and the absence of oxygen, which would neutralize these intermediates before they bind. In tissue with mainly one type of cell, such as tumor spheroids,^{20 21} or the arterial media the nitroreductive capacity may be expected to be rather uniform and the marker a true indicator of hypoxia. However, cell types other than SMCs may behave differently. Thus, in our incubations, groups of foam cells in the abluminal part of the atherosclerotic lesions showed a strong immunoreaction at O₂ concentrations of 3% or 6% in the surrounding medium, when at the same time more deeply situated SMCs in the media did not stain. At a higher oxygen concentration only a weak reaction was observed. This suggests that foam cells may have a higher PO₂ detection cutoff point.

The endothelial cells from the rabbit aorta, on the other hand, exhibited marked immunoreaction at all levels of oxygen concentration that were used (the porcine endothelium did not stain at all). The binding of nitroimidazole derivatives under presumably nonhypoxic conditions has also been observed in cells in other types of tissues, eg, stratified squamos epithelium, liver, and sebaceous glands. This may reflect a high nitroreductase activity, which would overwhelm the oxidative capacity of local oxygen.²⁷ Another suggestion is that the nitroimidazole marker is reduced by DT-diaphorase via a pathway that bypasses the oxygen-dependent futile cycle²⁷ ; activity of this enzyme has been demonstrated in these tissues.²⁸ DT-diaphorase activity has also been demonstrated in both endothelial cells and macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques.²⁹

In the rabbit endothelium the immunoreaction in our incubations was clearly independent of the oxygen concentration, and DT-diaphorase activity might be one way to explain this finding. The absence of immunoreaction in the endothelium of the incubated pig aortic segments might also be understood in this way if one considers the following: DT-diaphorase activity is often used as an indicator of nitric oxide synthase²⁹ (in fact, it has been suggested that nitric oxide synthetase and DT-diaphorase are identical enzymes³⁰ ), and nitric oxide synthetase activity (ie, endothelium-dependent relaxation) may be used as an indicator of endothelial integrity.^{31 32} It is thus possible that the lack of immunoreactivity in the endothelium of the incubated pig aorta reflects a decreased viability of these cells. Whereas the rabbit aorta was collected in a way that ensured endothelial integrity,¹⁵ the pig aorta was collected under less ideal circumstances. Of course, another possibility is that there is a true species difference.

The staining of the foam cells depended on the oxygen concentration, but immunoreaction seemed to occur at a higher local PO₂ than for the SMCs of the media. One possibility is that the rate of oxygen consumption in these cells was high and competed with the oxidation of nitroradicals. In fact, a high oxygen consumption in the foam cells may be related to an energy-consuming futile cycle.^{2 33} Another possibility is that macrophages/foam cells are activated by hypoxic stress at a comparatively high PO₂, causing the production of DT-diaphorase.³⁴ Another possibility is that nitroreductase activity in these cells is high and that a higher oxygen concentration was needed to oxidize the reactive intermediates.

In summary, we have shown that NITP binds to the SMCs of the aortic media in a clearly oxygen concentration–dependent manner in vitro. We used immunohistochemical methods to detect the marker, and the resolution of the method allows the mapping of local variations in oxygen concentration in the tissue. Since NITP and related substances have been applied in vivo in other contexts,^{11 12 13 14} we propose that this method may be used to explore the presence of arterial wall hypoxia in vivo. The intriguing NITP accumulation in foam cells at higher oxygen concentrations implies that less extreme hypoxia could be detected but also partly reflect oxygen-insensitive metabolic pathways within these cells. The mechanisms of the oxygen-independent accumulation of NITP in endothelial cells remain to be explored.

	Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms

 

AEC = 3-amino-9-ethyl-carbazole DAB = 3,3'-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride DT = detoxicating FITC = fluorescein isothiocyanate NITP = 7-(4'-(2-nitroimidazol-1-yl)-butyl)-theophylline PBS = phosphate-buffered saline SMC = smooth muscle cell

	Acknowledgments

 
This study was supported by the Swedish Heart and Lung Foundation and the Swedish Medical Research Council.

Received September 21, 1995; accepted October 3, 1995.

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