© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Relation of Glycohemoglobin and Adiposity to Atherosclerosis in Youth
From the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Tex (H.C.M.); the University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio (C.A.M.); and Louisiana State University Medical Center, New Orleans (G.T.M., M.C.O., J.P.S.).
Correspondence to Henry C. McGill, Jr, MD, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, PO Box 28147, San Antonio, TX 78228-0147.
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Abstract |
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Abstract In a cooperative multicenter study (Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth, PDAY) of 1532 young persons 15 through 34 years of age who died of external causes and were autopsied in medical examiners' laboratories, we quantified atherosclerosis of the aorta and the right coronary artery. We analyzed postmortem blood cells for glycohemoglobin and postmortem serum for lipoprotein cholesterol and thiocyanate (as an indicator for smoking). We measured the thickness of the panniculus adiposus and the body mass index (weight per height squared) as indicators of adiposity. Glycohemoglobin levels exceeding 8% were associated with substantially more extensive fatty streaks and raised lesions in the right coronary artery in persons more than 25 years of age and with more extensive raised lesions in the aorta in persons more than 30 years of age. Both thickness of the panniculus adiposus and body mass index were associated with more extensive fatty streaks and raised lesions in the right coronary artery. The associations of atherosclerotic lesions with glycohemoglobin and adiposity were not explained by a less favorable lipoprotein profile or smoking. The results show that atherosclerosis in young adults is associated with the prediabetic or early diabetic state, as indicated by elevated glycohemoglobin levels, and with obesity.
Key Words: panniculus adiposus • body mass index • atherosclerosis • adiposity • glycohemoglobin
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Introduction |
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The predisposition of persons with diabetes mellitus to atherosclerosis1 and to its clinical sequelae has long been known.2 Diabetics have an excess of dyslipoproteinemia and hypertension, but these do not account for the twofold to fourfold increased risk of atherosclerotic disease among diabetics.3 Subjects with impaired glucose tolerance and hyperglycemia but without clinically manifest diabetes have a higher risk of atherosclerotic disease.4
A new method of detecting elevated blood glucose emerged when electrophoretic variants of hemoglobin5 were found to result from the covalent binding of glucose to reactive amino acid groups,6 forming the complex called glycohemoglobin. The glycohemoglobin concentration is now recognized as a marker for the blood glucose concentration during the 2 to 3 months before it is measured7 and may indicate a preclinical stage of diabetes.8
Obesity is well known to predispose to diabetes.9 Obesity has been linked independently to atherosclerotic disease, but the relation is variable and inconsistent.10 11 12 Clarification of this relation, particularly in young persons, would be helpful in evaluating the health risk associated with obesity.
A multicenter cooperative study of atherosclerosis in 15- to 34-year-old autopsied young persons from whom arterial tissues and postmortem blood samples were collected provided the opportunity to assess the association of hyperglycemia, as indicated by glycohemoglobin levels, and adiposity with the extent and severity of atherosclerosis in its early stages.
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Methods |
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Study Design
Fourteen cooperating centers adopted a Standard Operating Protocol and Manual of Procedures for collecting specimens and information and submitting them to central laboratories for analysis. A statistical coordinating center received all data pertaining to each case from the collection centers and central laboratories.
Subjects
Study subjects were 15- to 34-year-old individuals who died of
external causes (accidents, homicides, or suicides) within 72 hours
after injury and were autopsied within 48 hours after death in one of
the cooperating medical examiners' laboratories. Age and race were
obtained from death certificates. Persons of race other than black or
white and those with congenital heart disease, Down's syndrome,
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or hepatitis were excluded.
From a total of 1692 cases collected between June 1, 1987, and August 31, 1990, we excluded 160 cases because they did not meet these inclusion criteria or because of incorrect sampling or incomplete information. The Institutional Review Board of each participating center approved the use of tissue, blood, and data from the human subjects in this study.
Dissection and Preservation of Arteries
An autopsy technician removed the aorta from a point 2 cm
proximal to the ligamentum arteriosum to a point 2 cm distal from the
iliac bifurcation. Branching arteries were severed close to the aortic
wall, and adventitial fat was removed by sharp dissection. The
Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY)
technician opened the aorta along a line on the dorsal surface midway
between the orifices of the intercostal and lumbar arteries, rinsed the
intimal surface with Hanks' modified balanced salt solution, and
flattened it with the adventitial surface downward. The PDAY technician
then bisected the aorta longitudinally along a line on the ventral
surface and midway between the intercostal and lumbar ostia; prepared
the right half for other studies, including histochemical and chemical
analyses; and placed the left half on a piece of cardboard with the
adventitia downward. This left half was covered with absorbent cotton
and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin in a flat pan for 48
hours.
The PDAY technician opened the right coronary artery from its origin to the point at which it turned downward along the posterior interventricular sulcus with blunt-point microdissecting scissors, dissected it from the heart, removed the epicardial fat, and fixed it in the same manner as the aorta. The other main branches of the coronary artery system were prepared for other studies.
The collection centers placed each aorta and coronary artery in a plastic bag and shipped accumulated tissues to the central laboratory each month. The central laboratory stained the arteries with Sudan IV and packaged each artery with its identification number in a transparent plastic bag with a slight excess of 10% formalin.
Weight
The body was weighed in the units commonly used by the local
medical examiner or coroner before organs, liquid, or other material
was removed from the body. Weight was recorded to the nearest 0.5 kg or
to the nearest 1 lb. A record was made when an amputation or other
operative procedure that might alter weight appreciably was
present.
Height
Cadaver length, from the vertex of the cranium to the base of
the heel, was measured in units commonly used by the local medical
examiner or coroner. The measuring instrument was laid parallel to the
body, which was in a supine position with the inferior extremities
extended. Measurements were recorded to the nearest 1 cm or 0.5 in.
Panniculus Adiposus
The autopsy technician measured subcutaneous fat, including the
subcutaneous tissue from the inner edge of the rectus sheath, to the
nearest millimeter at a point halfway between the xyphoid process and
the umbilicus. For statistical analysis, cases were classified into
categories of panniculus thickness corresponding to quartiles of the
entire sample.
Body Mass Index
We computed body mass index (BMI) as weight (in kilograms)
divided by height (in meters) squared. Cases were classified into
categories of BMI <25, BMI=25 to 30, and BMI >30
kg/m2.13
Grading Arterial Specimens
Pathologists, blinded to demographic, clinical, or pathological
observations and collection site, evaluated the right coronary arteries
and left halves of the aortas. They visually estimated the extent of
intimal surface involved with fatty streaks, fibrous plaques,
complicated lesions, and calcified lesions by procedures developed in
the International Atherosclerosis Project.14 A fatty
streak was a flat or slightly elevated intimal lesion stained by Sudan
IV and without other underlying changes. A fibrous plaque was a firm,
elevated intimal lesion, sometimes partially or completely covered by
sudanophilic deposits. A complicated lesion was a plaque with
hemorrhage, thrombosis, or ulceration. A calcified lesion was an area
in which calcium was detectable, either visually or by palpation,
without overlying hemorrhage, ulceration, or thrombus. The sum of the
percentages of surface involved with fibrous plaques, complicated
lesions, and calcified lesions by gross visual grading was designated
"raised lesions." Consensus grading of the lesions was the
average of independent gradings by the three pathologists.
Intraobserver variability was assessed by repeated independent gradings
of coded specimens randomly interspersed among new specimens. Agreement
among observers was reported previously.15
The PDAY pathologists experienced in evaluating atherosclerosis regarded 5% or more of the intimal surface area involved with raised lesions as biologically significant for this age group. We applied this cut point to both fatty streaks and raised lesions. The prevalence of 5% or more surface area involvement was based on the consensus grading of lesions.
Blood
Blood collected at autopsy from the aorta, heart, or vena cava
was centrifuged, and frozen serum and cells were shipped to the central
laboratory for analyses.
Glycohemoglobin
Glycohemoglobin was measured by affinity column chromatography
(Helena Laboratories) after a sample of thawed cell hemolysate was
mixed with hemolysate reagent to ensure complete lysis. The column was
an insoluble cellulose resin bound to dihydroxyboryl groups with an
affinity for cis diol groups present in glucose. This
method separates all the glycated hemoglobins from the nonglycated
hemoglobins and is not interfered with by labile glycated
hemoglobin.16 The coefficient of variation for blind
duplicate analyses was 7.0%. Of the 1532 cases, postmortem red blood
cells were available from 1335 cases. Values of 8% glycated hemoglobin
and above were defined as elevated.17
Lipoprotein Cholesterol
Serum cholesterol and HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), after
precipitation of other lipoproteins by
heparin/MnCl2, were measured by the cholesterol
oxidase method.18 The non–HDL-C concentration or the VLDL
plus LDL cholesterol (VLDL+LDL-C) was obtained by subtraction. The
coefficient of variation for blind duplicate analyses of serum
cholesterol was 1.3%; for HDL cholesterol, 5.2%. Several studies
demonstrated that postmortem levels of serum cholesterol and
lipoproteins were representative of premortem
levels.19 20 21 22 However, because emergency medical technology
teams often administer large quantities of intravenous fluids to some
individuals immediately before death resulting from violent causes, we
excluded all serum values from the statistical analysis when serum
cholesterol was less than 100 mg/dL.
Thiocyanate
We measured the color produced by the thiocyanate–ferric
nitrate complex after treatment of trichloroacetic acid filtrates of
serum with ferric nitrate.23 The coefficient of variation
for blind duplicate analyses was 5.5%. A smoker was defined as having
a serum thiocyanate level equal to or greater than 90 µmol/L.
Statistical Methods
The effects of glycohemoglobin, BMI, thickness of the panniculus
adiposus, sex, race, and 5-year age group on percent intimal surface
area involved with lesions were analyzed by ANOVA.24 The
linear model included the main effects and two-factor interactions. We
report only the effects that are related to the variables of interest
in this report and do not report findings for the effects of sex, race,
and age, which were included in the model. We applied a logit
transformation to the proportion of surface area involved with
lesions.25 A small constant (0.001) was added to avoid the
logarithm of zero. We applied a logarithmic transformation to the serum
lipoprotein concentrations. The transformations made the data better
satisfy the assumptions underlying the statistical analysis. To
determine whether the observed associations of lesions and
glycohemoglobin, BMI, or panniculus might be due to other risk factor
variables, the covariates VLDL+LDL-C, HDL-C, and smoking status were
added to the model. The prevalence of cases having 5% or more of the
intimal surface involved with lesions was analyzed with logistic
regression.26 Convergence problems in the logistic
regression maximum-likelihood procedure necessitated a model simpler
than that used for the ANOVA. Preliminary investigation indicated that
a main-effects model was adequate. Tests of hypotheses used the
likelihood ratio test.
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Results |
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Glycohemoglobin
Table 1
shows the mean levels of glycohemoglobin,
BMI, and thickness of panniculus adiposus by sex, race, and age. Blacks
have higher glycohemoglobin levels than whites, and males tend to have
higher glycohemoglobin levels than females. Glycohemoglobin changes
little with age, and there are no interactions among sex, race, and
age. There is no increase with age in prevalence of glycohemoglobin
levels equal to or greater than 8% (results not shown).
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Adiposity
White males have greater BMIs than black males, but white females
have smaller BMIs than black females, resulting in a sex-by-race
interaction. BMI increases with age in whites but not in blacks,
resulting in a race-by-age interaction.
White males have a thicker panniculus than black males, but white females and black females have about the same panniculus thickness, producing a sex-by-race interaction. The panniculus increases with age in all sex and race groups except black females, among whom there is little or no increase with age.
Correlations of Glycohemoglobin With Adiposity
Glycohemoglobin is positively but weakly correlated with BMI
(partial correlation coefficient adjusted for sex, race, and age, .084;
P=.0023) but not with the panniculus (partial correlation
coefficient, .029; P=.3025). BMI and panniculus are
correlated with each another (partial correlation coefficient, .578;
P=.0001).
Association of Glycohemoglobin and Atherosclerosis
Table 2 compares the extent of atherosclerotic
lesions in the aorta and right coronary artery for cases with
glycohemoglobin less than 8% and those with glycohemoglobin equal to
or greater than 8%. Elevated glycohemoglobin is substantially and
significantly associated with more extensive raised lesions in
both segments of the aorta and in the right coronary artery and
is associated with more extensive fatty streaks in the right
coronary.
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There is a sex-by-glycohemoglobin interaction for raised lesions in the thoracic aorta, with greater involvement among females with glycohemoglobin greater than or equal to 8% compared with males. No other interactions involve sex and race. There is, however, an interaction of glycohemoglobin with age: glycohemoglobin is associated with more extensive raised lesions in the older age groups (particularly the 30- to-34-year-old group) in both aortic segments and with more extensive fatty streaks and raised lesions in the right coronary arteries of persons over 25 years of age. There is no effect of glycohemoglobin at levels less than 8% on any type of lesion in the aorta or right coronary artery (results not shown).
Individual Cases With Elevated Glycohemoglobin
Because the number of cases with glycohemoglobin levels greater
than or equal to 8% was small, we matched the 32 subjects with
glycohemoglobin greater than or equal to 8% by age, race, sex, and
percent surface area involved with lesions to 32 subjects with
glycohemoglobin less than 7% to determine whether qualitative
differences in the atherosclerotic lesions existed between the two
groups. Fifteen variables that might differentiate between the two
groups were selected. After three pathologists reviewed the pairs of
specimens, 6 variables were selected for further study: intensity and
diffuseness of Sudan staining, confluence of lesions, demarcation of
lesions, distal distribution of lesions, and diffuse intimal
thickening. Each of three pathologists independently evaluated the
specimens. None of these 6 gross characteristics identified the
high-glycohemoglobin cases.
Association of Adiposity and Atherosclerosis
There is no consistent effect of BMI on either fatty streaks or
raised lesions in the aorta except for a weak positive association with
fatty streaks in the thoracic aorta (Table 3). BMI shows
a strong association with the extent of fatty streaks and raised
lesions in the right coronary artery of males but not in females (Table 4).
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To ensure that the associations reported in Table 4
were not due to the
presence of adolescents and very young adults in our sample, we
analyzed the association of BMI and right coronary artery lesions using
only individuals 25 years of age and older. Although significance
levels were larger because of the smaller number of cases, results
similar to those reported in Table 4 were obtained (results not
shown).
Panniculus thickness is associated with more extensive fatty streaks
and raised lesions in the right coronary artery, but there is no
interaction with sex (Table 5).
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Central Obesity
We used the two measures of adiposity together as an indication of
central (abdominal) obesity. Because we found an association of
adiposity only with coronary artery lesions and an association of BMI
only with coronary artery lesions in males, we analyzed the combined
association of BMI and panniculus thickness with lesions only in males.
We compared atherosclerosis between two BMI classes within each of two
classes of panniculus thickness. We used two classes of BMI because
there is little effect of BMI below 30 (Table 4) and two classes of
panniculus to simplify the presentation. Table 6
shows that BMI above 30 is associated with increased right coronary
artery fatty streaks regardless of panniculus thickness, although the
increase is greater with greater panniculus thickness. BMI exceeding 30
is associated with increased right coronary artery raised lesions only
within the higher classification of panniculus thickness.
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Glycohemoglobin and Adiposity
Beyond the variance accounted for by sex, race, and age,
glycohemoglobin explains 5.38% (P=.0001) of the
variance in thoracic aorta raised lesions, 1.54% (P=.0004)
of the variance in abdominal aorta raised lesions, 1.45%
(P=.0022) of the variance in right coronary artery fatty
streaks, and 1.70% (P=.0005) of the variance in right
coronary artery raised lesions. Adiposity (both BMI and
panniculus thickness considered simultaneously) explains
5.60% (P=.0001) of the variance in right coronary
artery fatty streaks and 4.21% (P=.0085) of the variance in
right coronary artery raised lesions.
The variance explained by glycohemoglobin is similar after adiposity is accounted for (thoracic aorta raised lesions, 4.81% [P=.0001]; abdominal aorta raised lesions, 1.47% [P=.0005]; right coronary fatty streaks, 1.15% [P=.0095]; and right coronary raised lesions, 1.37% [P=.0032]). Likewise, the variance explained by adiposity is similar after glycohemoglobin is accounted for (right coronary fatty streaks, 5.31% [P=.0001]; right coronary raised lesions, 3.88% [P=.0205]). These findings suggest that the association of elevated glycohemoglobin with lesions is not accounted for by adiposity and likewise that the association of adiposity with lesions is not accounted for by elevated glycohemoglobin.
Prevalence of Raised Lesions Greater Than 5%
Elevated glycohemoglobin and both measures of obesity are
associated with a higher prevalence of fatty streaks and raised lesions
in the right coronary artery; higher glycohemoglobin levels are
associated with a higher prevalence of raised lesions in the thoracic
aorta (Table 7).
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5% Intimal Surface
Area Involved With Lesions by Glycohemoglobin Classification, Body Mass
Index, and Panniculus Thickness Adjusted for Sex, Race, and Age
Relation of Glycohemoglobin and Adiposity to Serum Lipoproteins and
Smoking
Because of hemodilution and our inability to collect blood from
all individuals, the number of cases available for analyses with serum
lipoprotein concentrations and smoking is smaller. VLDL+LDL-C is
associated directly with glycohemoglobin, BMI, and thickness of
panniculus. Although the relation is not statistically significant,
HDL-C is inversely associated with the same variables (Table 8). Smokers have a slightly lower BMI than nonsmokers
(24.80 versus 24.14; P=.0586) and tend to have a slightly
thinner panniculus (20.66 versus 19.30 mm, P=.1369).
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Adjustment for Serum Lipoproteins and Smoking
When lesion values are adjusted for VLDL+LDL-C, HDL-C,
smoking, sex, race, and age, the significance of the effect of
glycohemoglobin on atherosclerosis is diminished, probably because the
number of cases is reduced (Table 9). Where the
association with glycohemoglobin is significant, the pattern of
differences between cases with glycohemoglobin less than 8% and cases
with glycohemoglobin greater than or equal to 8% is essentially the
same as in Table 2. The same is true for the effects of BMI (Table 10) and panniculus thickness (Table 11)
on lesions in the right coronary artery.
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Variance Explained by Glycohemoglobin and Adiposity
Table 12 shows the estimated variance as
percent of total variance in percent intimal surface area involved with
lesions in the right coronary artery explained by glycohemoglobin, BMI,
or panniculus thickness after adjustment for sex, race, age,
VLDL+LDL-C, HDL-C, and smoking status. The percent variance
explained is first given when all available cases are used in the
analysis. Next, the percent variance explained is given only for
those cases for which we have measurements of VLDL+LDL-C, HDL-C,
and thiocyanate; however, no adjustment is made for these additional
risk factor variables. Comparison of lesions in the subset with those
in all cases indicates the effects of using only a subset of the cases
defined by the availability of acceptable serum samples. The
significance levels change considerably owing to the reduced
number of cases, but the variance explained is similar to that
obtained when all cases are used. Finally, the percent variance
explained by glycohemoglobin, BMI, or panniculus thickness
after adjustment for VLDL+LDL-C, HDL-C, and smoking status is
presented. This similarity indicates that the associations
observed between lesions and glycohemoglobin, BMI, or panniculus
thickness (Tables 2 through 5) are not explained by the
association of glycohemoglobin, BMI, or panniculus thickness with a
less favorable lipoprotein profile or smoking.
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Discussion |
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Summary of Results
Elevated glycohemoglobin levels are associated with more extensive and more advanced atherosclerosis in the aorta and right coronary artery of persons between 25 and 34 years of age. The effect is not accounted for by serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels, smoking, or adiposity. Adiposity, as measured by either BMI or thickness of the panniculus adiposus, is associated with more extensive and more advanced atherosclerosis of the right coronary artery in persons 15 to 34 years of age. The association of lesions with adiposity is not explained by serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels or smoking.
Significance of Elevated Glycohemoglobin Levels
Hemodilution resulting from the administration of blood,
plasma, or other fluids to injured persons before death is a problem in
the interpretation of results of serum cholesterol
levels.18 27 28 However, hemodilution (or
hemoconcentration) does not interfere with obtaining accurate
measurements for glycohemoglobin. A glycohemoglobin concentration equal
to or exceeding 8% (by the analytical method used in this study)
indicates a mean blood glucose concentration equal to or greater than
about 150 mg/dL for the preceding 2 to 3 months17 and may
precede or accompany the early preclinical and presymptomatic stages of
diabetes.8
Although small, the variance explained by glycohemoglobin beyond
that explained by other variables such as sex, race, and age exceeds
that expected by chance, as indicated by the small significance levels.
The small increment in R2 associated with
elevated glycohemoglobin levels (Table 12), which contrasts with the
large effect on affected individuals (Table 2), is due to the low
frequency of elevated glycohemoglobin in the population.
Several recent articles reviewed the potential mechanisms by which diabetes, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperglycemia augment atherogenesis.29 30 31 Of the many mechanisms suggested, two seem most likely to be involved in the association of glycohemoglobin concentration in these young adults: the effects of dyslipoproteinemia and hyperinsulinemia in the prediabetic state, as suggested by Haffner et al,32 and a direct effect of glycosylation of proteins on atherogenesis.33
Prediabetic Dyslipoproteinemia and Hyperinsulinemia
The glycohemoglobin effect is not accounted for by serum
lipoprotein cholesterol levels (VLDL+LDL-C and HDL-C), and there is
little correlation between glycohemoglobin levels and serum lipoprotein
levels. However, the analyses of glycohemoglobin and serum lipoprotein
levels are limited to about half the total number of cases
(approximately 800) because serum was not available or the data were
excluded because of hemodilution. Furthermore, the limitations of a
single determination of serum cholesterol or lipoprotein cholesterol
being representative of the level over a longer period are well
known.34 Hemodilution, which does not occur in all cases,
introduces additional variability. These sources of error in the
measurement of serum cholesterol are expected to degrade the
association of serum cholesterol with lesions.35 In a
nonfasting sample, it was not possible to measure triglycerides and
thereby reliably estimate the true LDL-C level, nor was it feasible to
measure plasma insulin levels under these conditions. Therefore, the
possibility remains that individuals with elevated glycohemoglobin
levels may have had abnormal lipoprotein profiles and
hyperinsulinemia.
Advanced Glycosylation End Products
A process similar to the glycosylation of hemoglobin occurs in
other proteins. Subsequently, the carbohydrate-protein complex
undergoes chemical rearrangement to form irreversible advanced
glycosylation end products, which have a variety of deleterious effects
on cells and tissues.33 Control of hyperglycemia would
reduce the intensity and duration of exposure of tissue proteins to
blood glucose. There is hope for prevention of the deleterious effects
of glycosylation of proteins by agents such as
aminoguanidine.29
Obesity and Atherosclerosis
The health effects of obesity have been difficult to study because
(1) body weight and composition are influenced by many different
conditions (eg, caloric intake, physical activity, smoking, and genetic
factors), (2) its definition is not precise, (3) fat distribution may
be as important as total fat, (4) duration of exposure and age of the
subject influence its effects, and (5) obesity is associated with a
variety of health risks (hypertension, coronary heart disease, stroke,
non–insulin-dependent diabetes, cholelithiasis, and some forms of
cancer).10 11 12 Obesity enhances three other established
risk factors for coronary heart disease—hypertension,
dyslipoproteinemia, and diabetes mellitus—and is inversely
related to another major risk factor, smoking. In many instances, when
obesity is associated with coronary heart disease in univariate
analyses, multivariate analyses including the other risk factors do not
show an independent effect, but several long-term longitudinal studies
have found an independent effect after controlling for other risk
factors.36 37 38
Few studies have examined the association of obesity with atherosclerosis measured in the arteries of autopsied persons, and the results have been inconsistent or inconclusive. The relation is obscured or confounded in most natural deaths because body mass and adipose tissue are often affected by terminal illnesses and because many deaths are due to atherosclerosis and its complications. A large international survey of atherosclerosis in autopsied persons showed no association, even among accidental deaths in which there would be the least effect of terminal illness.39 However, in a subset of 672 men from New Orleans, La, for which smoking status was ascertained, there was a weak but significant association of thickness of panniculus adiposus with coronary artery but not aortic atherosclerosis after exclusion of individuals dying of diseases related to atherosclerosis and after adjustment for smoking.40 In another 1108 New Orleans males dying of causes unrelated to atherosclerosis but whose smoking status was unknown, there were significant correlations of the ratio of body weight to body length and ponderal index (body length divided by the cube root of body weight) with coronary artery raised lesions.41
The present results, which are derived from accidental deaths and were adjusted (in a subset of cases) for smoking status and lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, confirm and extend those observations by demonstrating a positive and significant association of obesity with coronary atherosclerosis in young persons. Although direct measurements of body fat distribution were not made, results from the combination of two measurements of adiposity as an indicator of central obesity are consistent with the closer association of central obesity with coronary heart disease that was observed in a number of epidemiological studies of living persons.42 43 44 45
The association of obesity with atherosclerosis among young persons, who were the focus of this study, is particularly significant for primary prevention programs in light of recent reports that obesity has greater predictive power for coronary heart disease after longer follow-up periods37 38 46 and that the prevalence of obesity is increasing in the United States.47
Conclusions
The observations reported here suggest that both elevated
glycohemoglobin levels, possibly associated with the prediabetic state,
and obesity are associated with accelerated atherogenesis in the third
and fourth decades of life. The results provide hope that early
detection and control of obesity and hyperglycemia in young persons
will reduce the risk of atherosclerotic disease in later life.
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Footnotes |
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Reprint requests to Jack P. Strong, MD, Department of Pathology, Louisiana State University Medical Center, 1901 Perdido St, New Orleans, LA 70112-1393.
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Appendix 1 |
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PDAY Research Group
The investigators cooperating in the multicenter PDAY study and the grants from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute supporting this research are listed below.
Program Directors
Robert W. Wissler (director), PhD, MD, University of Chicago,
and Abel L. Robertson, Jr (associate director), MD, PhD, University of
Illinois.
Steering Committee
J. Fredrick Cornhill, DPhil, Ohio State University; Henry C.
McGill, Jr, MD, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research; C. Alex
McMahan, PhD, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio;
Abel L. Robertson, Jr, MD, PhD, University of Illinois; Jack P. Strong,
MD, Louisiana State University Medical Center; Robert W. Wissler, PhD,
MD, University of Chicago.
Standard Operating Protocol and Manual of Procedures Committee
Chair
Margaret C. Oalmann, DrPH, Louisiana State University Medical
Center.
Participating Centers
University of Alabama, Birmingham, Department of Medicine:
Steffen Gay, MD (principal investigator); Renate E. Gay, MD; and
Guoquiang Huang, MD (HL-33733). Department of Biochemistry: Edward J.
Miller, PhD (principal investigator); Donald K. Furuto, PhD; Margaret
S. Vail; and Annie J. Narkates (HL-33728).
Albany Medical College, NY: Assad Daoud, MD (principal investigator); Adriene S. Frank, PhD; Mary A. Hyer; and E. Carol McGovern (HL-33765).
Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Tex: Louis C. Smith, PhD (principal investigator), and Faith M. Strickland, PhD (HL-33750).
University of Chicago, Ill: Robert W. Wissler, PhD, MD (principal investigator); Dragoslava Vessellinovitch, DVM, MS; Akio Komatsu, MD, PhD; Yoshiaki Kusumi, MD; Gregory M. Culen, DPM; Alyna Chien, BA; Alexis Demopoulos, BA; Gertrud Friedman, BA; R. Timothy Bridenstein, MS; Robert J. Stein, MD; Robert H. Kirschner, MD; Manuela Bekermeier, ASCP; Blanche Berger, ASCP; and Laura Hiltscher, ASCP (HL-33740).
University of Illinois, Chicago: Abel L. Robertson, Jr, MD, PhD (principal investigator); Robert J. Stein, MD; Edmund R. Donoghue, MD; Robert J. Buschmann, PhD; Yoshihisa Katsura, MD; Tae Lyong An, MD; Eupil Choi, MD; Nancy Jones, MD; Mitra S. Kalelkar, MD; Yuksel Konakci, MD; Barry Lifschultz, MD; V. Ramana Gumidyala, MD; Rose M. Harper, BS; and Francis Norris, HTL (ASCP) (HL-33758).
Louisiana State University Medical Center, New Orleans: Jack P. Strong, MD (principal investigator); Gray T. Malcom, PhD; William P. Newman III, MD; Margaret C. Oalmann, DrPH; Paul S. Roheim, MD; Ashim K. Bhattacharyya, PhD; Miguel A. Guzman, PhD; Ali A. Hatem, MD; Conrad A. Hornick, PhD; Carlos D. Restrepo, MD; Richard E. Tracy, MD, PhD; Cecilia C. Breaux, MS; Stephanie E. Hubbard; Cynthia S. Zsembik; DeAnne G. Gibbs; and Dana A. Troxclair (HL-33746).
University of Maryland, Baltimore: Wolfgang Mergner, MD, PhD (principal investigator); James H. Resau, PhD; Robert D. Vigorito, MS, PA; Q-C Yu, MD; and J. Smialek, MD (HL-33752).
Medical College of Georgia, Augusta: A. Bleakley Chandler, MD, and Raghunatha N. Rao, MD (co–principal investigators); D. Greer Falls, MD, Ross G. Gerrity, PhD, and Benjamin O. Spurlock, BA (coinvestigators); Kalish B. Sharma, MD, and Joel S. Sexton, MD (associate investigators); and K.K. Smith, HT(ASCP), and G.W. Forbes (research assistants) (HL-33772).
University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha: Bruce M. McManus, MD, PhD (principal investigator); Jerry W. Jones, MD; Todd J. Kendall, MS; Jerrold A. Remmenga, BS; and William C. Rogler, BS (HL-33778).
Ohio State University, Columbus: J. Fredrick Cornhill, DPhil (principal investigator); William R. Adrion, MD; Patrick M. Fardel, MD; Brian Gara, MS; Edward Herderick; John Meimer, MS; and Larry R. Tate, MD (HL-33760).
Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Tex: James E. Hixson, PhD (principal investigator), and Patricia K. Powers (HL-39913).
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio: C. Alex McMahan, PhD (principal investigator); George M. Barnwell, PhD (deceased); Henry C. McGill, Jr, MD; Yolan Marinez, MA; Thomas J. Prihoda, PhD; and Herman S. Wigodsky, MD, PhD (HL-33749).
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn: Renu Virmani, MD (principal investigator); James B. Atkinson, MD, PhD; Charles W. Hartland, MD; Linda Gleaves, RA; Crystal Gleaves, HT; and Manik Paul, RA (HL-33770).
West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown: Singanallur N. Jagannathan, PhD (principal investigator); Bruce Caterson, PhD; James Frost, MD; K. Murali K. Rao, MD; Syamala Jagannathan; Peggy Johnson; and Nathaniel F. Rodman, MD (HL-33748).
Received August 28, 1994; accepted January 20, 1995.
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D. L. Rainwater, C. A. McMahan, G. T. Malcom, W. D. Scheer, P. S. Roheim, H. C. McGill Jr, and J. P. Strong Lipid and Apolipoprotein Predictors of Atherosclerosis in Youth : Apolipoprotein Concentrations Do Not Materially Improve Prediction of Arterial Lesions in PDAY Subjects Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., March 1, 1999; 19(3): 753 - 761. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. P. Strong, G. T. Malcom, C. A. McMahan, R. E. Tracy, W. P. Newman III, E. E. Herderick, J. F. Cornhill, and for the Pathobiological Determinants of Atheroscle Prevalence and Extent of Atherosclerosis in Adolescents and Young Adults: Implications for Prevention From the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study JAMA, February 24, 1999; 281(8): 727 - 735. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. S. Gidding, L. C. Bookstein, and E. V. Chomka Usefulness of Electron Beam Tomography in Adolescents and Young Adults With Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia Circulation, December 8, 1998; 98(23): 2580 - 2583. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 R. W. Wissler and J. P. Strong Risk Factors and Progression of Atherosclerosis in Youth Am. J. Pathol., October 1, 1998; 153(4): 1023 - 1033. [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. C. McGill Jr, C. A. McMahan, R. E. Tracy, M. C. Oalmann, J. F. Cornhill, E. E. Herderick, and J. P. Strong Relation of a Postmortem Renal Index of Hypertension to Atherosclerosis and Coronary Artery Size in Young Men and Women Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., July 1, 1998; 18(7): 1108 - 1118. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. S. Berenson, S. R. Srinivasan, W. Bao, W. P. Newman, R. E. Tracy, W. A. Wattigney, and The Bogalusa Heart Study Association between Multiple Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Atherosclerosis in Children and Young Adults N. Engl. J. Med., June 4, 1998; 338(23): 1650 - 1656. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. P. Burke, A. Farb, G. T. Malcom, Y.-h. Liang, J. Smialek, and R. Virmani Effect of Risk Factors on the Mechanism of Acute Thrombosis and Sudden Coronary Death in Women Circulation, June 2, 1998; 97(21): 2110 - 2116. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. M. Grundy, G. J. Balady, M. H. Criqui, G. Fletcher, P. Greenland, L. F. Hiratzka, N. Houston-Miller, P. Kris-Etherton, H. M. Krumholz, J. LaRosa, et al. Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease: Guidance From Framingham : A Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the AHA Task Force on Risk Reduction Circulation, May 19, 1998; 97(18): 1876 - 1887. [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Reaven, P. R. Nader, C. Berry, and T. Hoy Cardiovascular Disease Insulin Risk in Mexican-American and Anglo-American Children and Mothers Pediatrics, April 1, 1998; 101 (4): e12 - e12. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. A. Fisher, L. Van Horn, and H. C. McGill Jr Nutrition and Children : A Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the Nutrition Committee, American Heart Association Circulation, May 6, 1997; 95(9): 2332 - 2333. [Full Text]
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A. P. Burke, A. Farb, G. T. Malcom, Y.-h. Liang, J. Smialek, and R. Virmani Coronary Risk Factors and Plaque Morphology in Men with Coronary Disease Who Died Suddenly N. Engl. J. Med., May 1, 1997; 336(18): 1276 - 1282. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M.-L. Kortelainen and T. Sarkioja Extent and Composition of Coronary Lesions and Degree of Cardiac Hypertrophy in Relation to Abdominal Fatness in Men Under 40 Years of Age Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., March 1, 1997; 17(3): 574 - 579. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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H. C. McGill Jr, C. A. McMahan, G. T. Malcom, M. C. Oalmann, and J. P. Strong Effects of Serum Lipoproteins and Smoking on Atherosclerosis in Young Men and Women Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., January 1, 1997; 17(1): 95 - 106. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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W. Group, S. S. Gidding, R. L. Leibel, S. Daniels, M. Rosenbaum, L. Van Horn, and G. R. Marx Understanding Obesity in Youth: A Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the Committee on Atherosclerosis and Hypertension in the Young of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and the Nutrition Committee, American Heart Association Circulation, December 15, 1996; 94(12): 3383 - 3387. [Full Text]
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H. C. McGill Jr, J. P. Strong, R. E. Tracy, C. A. McMahan, and M. C. Oalmann Relation of a Postmortem Renal Index of Hypertension to Atherosclerosis in Youth Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., December 1, 1995; 15(12): 2222 - 2228. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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