© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Influence of Diets Rich in Saturated and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on the Postprandial Responses of Apolipoproteins B-48, B-100, E, and Lipids in Triglyceride-Rich Lipoproteins
From the Cardiovascular Research Institute and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco.
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Abstract The effects of diets rich in saturated fatty acids (SFA) (total polyunsaturated fatty acids [PUFA] [g]/total SFA [g][P/S ratio], 0.2) or omega-6 PUFA (P/S ratio, 1.3) on the postprandial response of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) was determined in normolipidemic young men. After 15 and 29 days of diet intervention, the postabsorptive concentrations of apolipoprotein (apo) B-48 and apoB-100 were higher in the SFA group than in the PUFA group, but the absolute increase in apoB-48 was similar 3 hours after a challenge meal containing one third of daily energy and returned to postabsorptive values at 6 hours; this response was closely coupled to that of TRL triglycerides. In both groups, the percent increase in TRL apoB-48 and triglycerides was greater after the PUFA meal than after the SFA meal. The concentration of TRL apoB-100 also increased at 3 hours in both diet groups but returned to postabsorptive values at 6 hours only in those fed the PUFA diet; in the SFA group, apoB-100 remained high at 6 hours and fell below postabsorptive values only 9 hours after the meal. This apoB-100 response was affected primarily by the fatty acid composition of the diet and not by that of the challenge meal. The postprandial response of apoB-100 was closely coupled to that of cholesterol and apoE. These observations suggest that in healthy young men, neither the fatty acid composition of the diet nor that of the challenge meal affects the clearance of chylomicron remnants after a fat-containing meal. By contrast, the postprandial accumulation of hepatogenous TRL is prolonged in individuals fed a diet rich in SFA.
Key Words: postprandial lipemia • chylomicrons • very-low-density lipoproteins • remnants
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Introduction |
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Numerous studies have shown that dietary fat saturation affects plasma and LDL cholesterol concentrations, measured in the fasting (postabsorptive) state.1 Relatively little is known about the influence of dietary fat saturation on the metabolism of triglycerides and TRL in blood plasma in the fed (postprandial) state. Most individuals spend more than 12 hours daily in the postprandial state; plasma triglycerides increase shortly after the first meal of the day and return to postabsorptive concentrations several hours after the last meal of the day. Postprandial changes in lipoproteins have become increasingly important because accumulating evidence suggests that delayed clearance of postprandial TRL, namely intestine-derived chylomicrons and liver-derived VLDL, increases atherogenic risk.2 3
It has been suggested that individuals consuming a diet rich in SFA have a higher concentration of chylomicrons and their remnants4 and clear these particles more slowly5 than those consuming a diet rich in omega-64 5 or omega-3 PUFA.4 Based on the assumption that vitamin A esters specifically label the core of intestinal lipoproteins, Weintraub et al4 measured retinyl palmitate in Sf>1000 chylomicron and Sf<1000 remnant particles. They reported that the total area below the retinyl palmitate curves (0- to 12-hour interval) for Sf >1000 and Sf<1000 lipoproteins were highest on the SFA diet, lowest on the omega-3 PUFA diet, and intermediate on the omega-6 PUFA diet and concluded that omega-6 and omega-3 PUFA reduce the concentrations of chylomicrons and their remnants. A considerable amount of retinyl esters has been found to associate not only with apoB-48–containing chylomicrons but also with apoB-100–containing VLDL, particularly during later stages of alimentary lipemia (6 to 9 hours after the meal).6 The extent to which the SFA-induced increase in retinyl palmitate in the Sf<1000 fraction4 reflects accumulation of chylomicron remnants is therefore uncertain because this fraction contains not only chylomicron remnants and VLDL but also LDL and HDL, all of which may acquire retinyl esters during postprandial lipemia. Demacker and associates5 approached this problem by measuring the diurnal response of apoB-48 and apoB-100 in TRL (d<1.019 g/mL), estimated from dye absorbance of the proteins separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, in subjects who had consumed a diet rich in SFA or PUFA for 9 days. They reported a greater and more prolonged postprandial increase in apoB-48 in the SFA diet group than in the PUFA diet group and concluded that a diet rich in SFA delays the clearance of chylomicrons and their remnants.
Although the reported studies suggest that dietary fat saturation may affect the metabolism of TRL, data on postprandial changes in the absolute concentrations of apoB-48 and apoB-100, the structural components of chylomicrons and VLDL, are lacking. Furthermore, the procedures generally used to separate TRL have not permitted characterization of chylomicron and VLDL composition. To address these shortcomings, we used a quantitative approach to determine whether the metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL is altered by a diet rich in SFA compared with a diet rich in omega-6 PUFA. We measured the postabsorptive and postprandial concentrations of apoB-48 and apoB-100, together with other protein and lipid components, in total TRL and a population of particles containing 85% to 90% of total TRL apoB-100 but no apoB-48.7 Because both the fatty acid composition of the background diet and the challenge meal have been suggested to affect the postprandial response,4 we investigated the responses to both an SFA- and a PUFA-rich challenge meal in healthy young men who had consumed an SFA- or PUFA-rich diet for 2 to 4 weeks.
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Methods |
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Subjects
Based on recent findings that plasma and LDL-cholesterol responses to saturated fat and cholesterol feeding may differ between Caucasians and non-Caucasians,8 our sample population was selected only among whites. Because hormonal fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle affect lipoprotein metabolism and could confound postprandial lipoprotein responses, we did not include women in the study. Thirty-two healthy, nonmoking men (aged 25 to 40 years) were recruited mostly among employees and students from the University of California at San Francisco. We excluded men with plasma cholesterol values above the 95th percentile, HDL cholesterol concentrations below the 10th percentile, plasma triglycerides above the 90th percentile or below the 10th percentile for age,9 and a body mass index (kilograms per meter squared) above the 75th percentile for age.10 Men with a history of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, thyroid disorders, or renal disease were also excluded. Before acceptance, subjects were interviewed by a dietitian and were asked to complete a 24-hour dietary recall, a food frequency questionnaire, and an exercise questionnaire. Individuals with excessive alcohol intake, unusual dietary habits (eg, vegetarians), or irregular exercise habits were excluded. All procedures used during the study were approved by the University of California Committee of Human Research, and subjects gave their written consent to participate.
Dietary Intervention
Energy requirements for each subject were initially estimated
from the Harris-Benedict equation11 and a detailed
physical activity questionnaire. Caloric adjustments were made, when
necessary, to ensure that each participant maintained his weight within
3 lb of his starting weight. Because fluctuations in weight greatly
affect triglyceride metabolism, body weight was
monitored daily, and subjects were instructed not to deviate from their
physical exercise habits, which were monitored weekly.
For the 4-week duration of the study, subjects ate all and only the
food provided by the General Clinical Research Center. Subjects were
required to consume at least two of three meals per day at the research
unit and under the supervision of a dietitian. On request, the third
meal was packaged to take home. The SFA- and PUFA-rich diets, which
contained 200 mg cholesterol/1000 kcal, were modified from
those used in an earlier study8 and consisted of natural
foods, prepared daily in weighed, individual portions. To provide
variety, 3-day rotating menus for both diets were developed with the
use of computer-analyzed recipes designed for the study. To
estimate the nutrient composition of the research diets, we used a
nutrient calculation system customized for the General Clinical
Research Center (Diet Planner, version 2.09) and based on the US
Department of Agriculture Handbook 8,12 expanded to
include the nutrient composition of chemically analyzed fats
and food ingredients commonly used in our study. To determine the
chemical composition of the research diets (Table 1
),
food composites were prepared for each day of the rotating menus and
were sent to Hazleton Laboratories America for analysis of
energy, protein, carbohydrate, total fat, individual fatty acids, and
cholesterol. Trans-fatty acids were
analyzed by the Prince Edward Island Food Technology
Center.
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Experimental Design
On entry into the study, subjects were randomly allocated to
either the SFA-rich or the PUFA-rich background diet, which they
consumed for 29 days (Fig 1). To assess diet-induced
changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins over time, blood was
collected from subjects fasted overnight at baseline (day 1) and on
days 8, 15, 22, and 29.
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Two postprandial studies were conducted during the 4-week diet intervention. Blood was sampled in the postabsorptive state (0-hour sample, obtained at 6 am) and 3, 6, 9, and 12 hours after subjects ate a challenge meal. For the first postprandial study (day 15), aimed at determining the effect of dietary fat saturation in the background diet on the responses of postprandial TRL ("diet effect"), all subjects ate a challenge meal similar in fatty acid composition to their respective background diet. For the second postprandial study (day 29), one half of the subjects on a given background diet were randomly allocated to consume a PUFA-rich challenge meal, and the other half consumed an SFA-rich challenge meal. This allowed us to determine (1) whether the fatty acid composition of the challenge meal itself ("meal effect") affects the postprandial response and (2) whether the postprandial responses of subjects given the same challenge meal on days 15 and 29 are reproducible. The PUFA-rich challenge meal (P/S ratio, 1.2) and SFA-rich meal (P/S ratio, 0.2) provided one third of the daily energy (39% from fat, 46% from carbohydrates, 15% from protein, and approximately 250 mg of cholesterol/1000 calories). The SFA challenge meal consisted of a soup, crackers, cheese sandwich, applesauce, cookies, and milk, and the PUFA meal consisted of a tuna sandwich, peanut butter and jelly sandwich, custard, fruit juice, and milk. The tuna was packed in water and contained very small amounts of omega-3 fatty acids (PUFA meal, 0.81 g/1000 kcal; SFA meal, 0.43 g/1000 kcal). Subjects ate the challenge meal within 15 to 20 minutes and were not given any other food until the 12-hour postprandial sample of blood was collected. Water was permitted as desired.
Separation and Analysis of Plasma
Lipoproteins
Blood samples in the postabsorptive state and for the
postprandial studies were drawn into tubes containing disodium EDTA
(0.05%) and benzamidine (0.03%) to prevent scission of
apoB-100.13 The samples were kept on ice until plasma was
separated by centrifugation (720g) at 4°C
for 30 minutes. Total TRL were isolated by
ultracentrifugation (d=1.006
g/mL)14 of 6 mL of plasma in a 50.3 Beckman rotor at
93 000g (average) at 12°C for 18 hours. TRL were
collected by tube slicing, and the TRL infranatant was collected and
brought to a final volume of 5 mL with 0.15 mol/L NaCl. A fraction
containing VLDL+IDL was isolated from the initial plasma sample by
ultracentrifugation at d=1.019 g/mL
under the same conditions.
In a subset of individuals fed the SFA- and PUFA-rich diets, plasma collected during the postprandial studies was subjected to immunoaffinity chromatography on a column containing a monoclonal antibody to apoB-100 (JIH, Japan Immunoresearch Laboratories). Thereby, chylomicron-derived particles and a minor portion of apoB-100–containing TRL were separated from the bulk of TRL particles containing apoB-100 that bind to monoclonal antibody JIH.7 The unbound material collected after immunoaffinity chromatography was subjected to ultracentrifugation at d=1.006 g/mL as described above, and the unbound TRL were collected by tube slicing.
Plasma and lipoprotein total cholesterol, free cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations were determined by enzymatic assays with a Cobas Mira analyzer (Roche Laboratories).15 16 Reagents for total cholesterol and triglyceride assays were from Roche Diagnostics; reagents for free cholesterol assays were from Wako Chemicals. An ABA-100 chromatic analyzer (Abbott Laboratories) was used to measure cholesterol in TRL from hypertriglyceridemic postprandial samples (obtained 3, 6, and 9 hours after the challenge meal) because the turbidity of these samples affected the linearity of the Roche-Diagnostics cholesterol assay. HDL lipids were measured in the supernatant obtained after precipitation of apoB-containing lipoproteins with dextran sulfate and magnesium chloride.17 All lipid analyses were done in duplicate and were routinely calibrated against a pooled serum sample. LDL lipid concentrations were calculated as lipid concentrations in the TRL infranatant minus lipid concentrations in HDL. IDL lipids in postabsorptive samples were calculated as lipid concentrations in the d=1.019 g/mL supernatant minus lipid concentrations in TRL.
ApoB-100, apoB-48, and apoE in total TRL and unbound TRL were
quantified by densitometric scanning of Coomassie blue–stained
apolipoproteins separated by sodium dodecyl
sulfate–polyacrylamide slab gel
electrophoresis.18 Briefly, to separate apolipoproteins,
duplicate samples of delipidated TRL were subjected to electrophoresis
in 3% to 10% linear gradient polyacrylamide slab minigels.
After electrophoresis, gels were stained overnight in 0.25% Coomassie
brilliant blue R-250, destained for 7 to 8 hours, and then dried. For
apolipoprotein quantification, the gels were scanned with a laser
densitometer, and the intensity of dye uptake of the apolipoprotein
bands was measured in "volume units." Volume units were
translated into actual apolipoprotein mass based on standard curves
constructed for pure apoB-100, apoB-48, and apoE. An example of a gel
showing changes in these apolipoproteins before and after a challenge
meal is shown in Fig 2.
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The concentration of plasma apoE was estimated by radioimmunoassay.19 ApoE phenotype was determined by analytical isoelectric focusing electrophoresis of delipidated VLDL.20
Statistical Analysis
Differences between the postabsorptive concentrations of plasma
lipids and lipoproteins in the SFA and PUFA diet groups were
analyzed by the nonparametric Mann-Whitney
U test. Data collected from the postprandial studies were
subjected to two-way ANOVA for repeated measures to test the
overall significance of postprandial measurements over time (time
effect) and between diet groups (diet effect or challenge meal effect).
When the overall F statistic was significant (P<.05),
specific comparisons within a given group were evaluated by the
nonparametric Wilcoxon matched-pairs test that
accounts for skewed distributions. Associations between lipoprotein
variables were examined by calculating the Pearson correlation
coefficient. Values in the text, tables, and figures are expressed in
milligrams per deciliter and as mean±SD. Differences were considered
significant at P<.05.
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Results |
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Characteristics of Subjects at Entry Into Study
Of the 32 subjects who completed the diet study, 66% had an apoE3/3 phenotype, 28% had an apoE4/3 phenotype, and 6% had an apoE2/3 phenotype, a distribution close to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Because our preliminary analysis of the data revealed that inclusion of individuals with an apoE4/3 and apoE2/3 phenotype was a confounder in interpreting the influence of dietary fat saturation on TRL responses, only data obtained from individuals with an apoE3/3 phenotype (13 in the SFA diet group, 8 in the PUFA diet group) are presented here.
On entry into the study, the young men allocated to the SFA and PUFA
diets had similar anthropometric characteristics and postabsorptive
plasma lipoproteins (Table 2). In the group as a whole,
mean body mass index (24.2±1.5), plasma cholesterol
(171.0±26.1 mg/dL), and triglyceride concentrations
(92.0±23.1 mg/dL) were all below the 50th percentile for age. These
low plasma lipid concentrations at baseline may in part be explained by
the subjects' usual dietary habits. Based on a 24-hour recall, the
average consumption of subjects from each group was approximately 30%
of energy from fat (11% monounsaturated fatty
acids, 11% SFA, and 8% PUFA) and approximately 105 mg of
cholesterol/1000 kcal.
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Diet-Induced Changes in Postabsorptive Concentrations of Plasma
Lipids and Lipoproteins
The influence of dietary fat saturation in the background
diets was as expected. In the group fed the SFA-rich diet, plasma
cholesterol concentrations were 15% higher than their
entry values after only 8 days (+24.6 mg/dL, P=.004) and
remained elevated throughout the rest of the experimental period (Table 3). This increase was primarily in LDL
(P=.002). The concentrations of plasma and LDL
cholesterol decreased only slightly in the PUFA group and
were 7% lower on day 29 than the corresponding values at entry
(P=.02 and P=.09, respectively).
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Whereas the SFA-rich diet did not affect plasma triglycerides, in individuals fed the PUFA diet for 15 days plasma triglycerides decreased significantly from entry values (-18.4 mg/dL, P=.02) and remained lower thereafter. These differences are important because the magnitude of the postprandial response to a challenge meal is a function of the postabsorptive triglyceride concentration.4 21
Influence of Diets Rich in SFA or PUFA on Postprandial Lipid and
Apolipoprotein Responses in Total TRL
Although the postabsorptive concentrations of TRL apoB-48
were 40% lower in the PUFA group than in the SFA group
(P=.07) (Fig 3, left panel), the postprandial
pattern was similar, with apoB-48 increasing twofold to threefold 3
hours after the meal and returning to near postabsorptive
concentrations at 6 hours in both groups. The postprandial
response of apoB-48 was closely coupled to that of TRL
triglycerides, which also increased twofold to threefold 3
hours after the meal. Unlike apoB-48, TRL triglycerides
remained slightly higher than baseline at 6 hours (P<.03),
but both components fell below postabsorptive values at 9 hours in both
groups. Expressed as percent change from postabsorptive values (Fig 3,
right panel), the postprandial increments in TRL
triglycerides and apoB-48 at 3 hours were greater in
individuals fed the PUFA-rich diet and challenge meal than in those fed
the SFA-rich diet and challenge meal (P=.016 and
P=.089, respectively). This greater response in the PUFA
diet group did not affect the rate of fall of triglycerides
and apoB-48 concentrations to or below postabsorptive values.
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significantly greater percent change from 0-hour value than with the
SFA diet and SFA meal by the Mann-Whitney U test
(P<.05); §significantly lower than the SFA diet group by
the Mann-Whitney U test (P<.05).
Whereas fat saturation in the background diet did not affect the
apparent rate of clearance of chylomicron remnants, it significantly
affected the postprandial response of apoB-100–containing TRL.
Concurrent with the increment in apoB-48 and triglycerides,
the concentrations of apoB-100 and cholesterol in TRL
increased significantly 3 hours after the meal in both diet groups but
returned to near postabsorptive values at 6 hours only in individuals
fed the PUFA-rich background diet (Fig 3
, left panel). In contrast, in
those fed the SFA-rich diet the concentrations of apoB-100 and
cholesterol were still significantly higher than baseline
at 6 hours (P=.027 and P=.01, respectively) and
fell below postabsorptive concentrations only 9 hours after the meal,
evidently reflecting the accumulation of hepatogenous TRL in
individuals fed a diet rich in SFA. In contrast to TRL
triglycerides and apoB-48, the percent increase in TRL
cholesterol and apoB-100 at 3 hours was similar in the two
groups (Fig 3, right panel).
Concentrations of total apoE in plasma were not significantly different
in the postabsorptive state in individuals fed the SFA (4.88 mg/dL) and
PUFA (4.33 mg/dL) diets and did not change postprandially (data not
shown). In both diet groups TRL apoE concentrations increased twofold
to threefold 3 hours after the meal (Fig 3). This response was
accompanied by a significant and transitory decrease in HDL apoE
(calculated as the difference between plasma and TRL apoE) at 3 hours
(P=.02; data not shown). As with TRL apoB-100, TRL apoE
concentrations 6 hours after the meal were significantly higher than
postabsorptive values only in the SFA diet group
(P=.04).
The average concentrations of all of the TRL components over the 12-hour postprandial period were higher in the SFA diet group than in the PUFA group: 0.28 and 0.19 mg/dL for apoB-48, P=.08; 11.90 and 6.90 mg/dL for cholesterol, P=.06; 4.99 and 3.18 mg/dL for apoB-100, P=.035; and 0.98 and 0.63 mg/dL for apoE, P=.08.
Influence of Challenge Meals Rich in SFA or PUFA on Postprandial
Lipid and Apolipoprotein Responses in Total TRL
Our study design allowed us to determine whether the fatty
acid composition of the challenge meal itself affected the postprandial
response in individuals fed the SFA diet (Fig 4) or the
PUFA diet (Fig 5). In contrast to an earlier
report,4 individuals given a PUFA-rich challenge meal had
a significantly greater percent increase in TRL
triglycerides and a greater percent increase in apoB-48 at
3 hours than those given an SFA challenge meal. This was true for both
diet groups (Figs 4 and 5, right panels). These different responses to
the PUFA and SFA challenge meals were independent of postabsorptive
concentrations of TRL triglycerides and apoB-48, which were
identical on days 15 and 29 in individuals fed the SFA background diet
(Fig 4, left panel). Although the increases in TRL
cholesterol, apoB-100, and apoE at 3 hours showed the same
pattern, none of these differences was statistically significant.
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Despite the greater postprandial responses of TRL
triglycerides and apoB-48 3 hours after the PUFA meal,
values still returned to postabsorptive concentrations at 6 hours, as
they did after the SFA meal (Figs 4 and 5). This suggests that the rate
of clearance of chylomicron remnants was not affected by the fatty acid
composition of the challenge meal. Similarly, although the 3-hour
increments in TRL apoB-100, cholesterol, and apoE tended to
be higher after the PUFA challenge meal than after the SFA meal, the
overall response induced by the background diets was not altered.
Whether subjects ate a PUFA- or SFA-rich challenge meal, the
concentrations of TRL cholesterol, apoB-100, and apoE still
returned to postabsorptive values at 6 hours in the PUFA diet group but
not in the SFA diet group. Because the fatty acid composition of the
challenge meal did not affect the 6-hour postprandial responses, meal
data from postprandial studies conducted on day 29 were pooled and
analyzed for the total SFA group (n=13) and PUFA group (n=8).
As with our findings on day 15, the concentrations of TRL
cholesterol, apoB-100, and apoE at 6 hours were
significantly higher than postabsorptive values in the SFA diet group
(P=.02, .005, and .02, respectively) but not in the PUFA
diet group. These consistent findings indicate that the
postprandial increase in the concentration of hepatogenous TRL in the
plasma is materially influenced by the fatty acid composition of the
background diet but not that of the challenge meal.
Postprandial Changes in Total, Free, and Esterified
Cholesterol in Plasma, LDL, and HDL
Postprandial increases in triglycerides in total
TRL were accompanied by a concurrent redistribution of lipids within
plasma, HDL, and LDL. Because the pattern of these changes was similar
in both diet groups, the data were pooled and analyzed together
(Fig 6). Total cholesterol in plasma
decreased slightly at 3 hours and increased significantly above
postabsorptive values 12 hours after the challenge meal. These changes
were reflected by a decrease in cholesterol in LDL and HDL
at 3 hours that exceeded its increase in TRL and, conversely, an
increase in LDL and HDL cholesterol above postabsorptive
concentrations at 12 hours that exceeded the fall below baseline values
in TRL cholesterol. Plasma free cholesterol
increased only marginally 12 hours after the meal (+0.77 mg/dL,
P=.14). In TRL, the transitory increase in free
cholesterol at 3 hours and the decrease below
postabsorptive values at 12 hours was accompanied by a proportional
fall below postabsorptive concentrations in free
cholesterol in LDL and HDL at 3 hours and a rise above
postabsorptive values at 12 hours. In contrast, plasma esterified
cholesterol fell significantly below postabsorptive
concentrations at 3 hours and rose above postabsorptive values at 12
hours. These changes were reflected by a significant decrease in
esterified cholesterol in LDL and HDL that exceeded the
increase in TRL esterified cholesterol at 3 hours.
Conversely, 12 hours after the meal the increase above postabsorptive
values in esterified cholesterol in LDL and HDL exceeded
its fall below baseline in TRL.
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Postprandial Changes in ApoB-48–Containing and
ApoB-100–Containing TRL Separated by Immunoaffinity
Chromatography
In a subset of the postprandial studies carried out on day
15, apoB-48–containing TRL and 10% to 15% of particles containing
apoB-100 were separated from the bulk of TRL by immunoaffinity
chromatography.7 22 Bound TRL particles
(calculated as the difference between total TRL and unbound TRL)
contain the remaining 85% to 90% of TRL apoB-100.
In the postabsorptive state, unbound TRL from individuals in the SFA
(n=10) and PUFA diet groups (n=5) contained, respectively, 39% and
43% of total TRL triglycerides, 34% and 28% of TRL
cholesterol, 14% and 11% of TRL apoB-100, and 25% and
22% of TRL apoE. None of these differences was statistically
significant. Postprandially, lipids and apolipoproteins in both unbound
and bound TRL increased significantly. Because the pattern of changes
in these particles was similar in both diet groups, data were pooled
for analysis. Particles containing apoB-48 and a small fraction
of apoB-100 accounted for most of the increase in total TRL lipids 3
hours after the meal, whereas bound TRL apoB-100 accounted for the
accumulation of total TRL components after 6 hours (Fig 7). Although significant postprandial changes occurred
in both unbound and bound TRL, 60% to 70% of the increase in total
TRL triglycerides, cholesterol, and apoE at 3
hours was in the unbound fraction. Six hours after the meal,
concentrations of unbound lipids and apolipoproteins were below
postabsorptive values, but bound TRL accumulated in the plasma 6 hours,
as well as 3 hours, postprandially. These observations indicate that
both apoB-48– and apoB-100–containing TRL contributed to postprandial
lipemia, but unbound particles containing apoB-48 accounted for most of
the early increases in TRL lipids, and bound TRL containing the bulk of
apoB-100 accounted for the accumulation of TRL cholesterol,
apoB, and apoE during later stages of postprandial lipemia.
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In separate analyses, we found that in the PUFA diet group given the PUFA meal the concentrations of unbound TRL components returned to postabsorptive values at 6 hours, whereas in the SFA group given the SFA meal the concentrations of unbound triglycerides, apoB-100, and apoE tended to remain higher than baseline values (P=.07, .05, and .07, respectively) and fell below postabsorptive values only 9 hours after the meal (data not shown).
Correlations Between Postabsorptive and Postprandial
Lipoprotein Components
The metabolic pathways of chylomicrons and VLDL
are interrelated and closely associated with the metabolism
of HDL. The postabsorptive concentration of TRL
triglycerides was well correlated with that of TRL
apoB-48, apoB-100, apoE, and cholesterol and inversely
correlated with that of HDL cholesterol (Table 4). Postabsorptive concentrations of TRL apoB-100 were
also inversely related to HDL cholesterol and directly
related to TRL apoB-48. Although the postabsorptive concentration of
TRL triglycerides exceeded 60 mg/dL in only 3 of the 21
individuals studied, the postabsorptive TRL triglyceride
concentration predicted the 3-hour increment in TRL
triglycerides; the relationship was significant only in the
SFA diet group. No significant relationships were found between
postabsorptive TRL triglycerides and 3-hour increments in
TRL apoB-48, apoB-100, and cholesterol.
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The postprandial increment in TRL triglycerides at 3 hours was well correlated with that of TRL apoB-48, apoE, and cholesterol in both diet groups but was not related to the 3-hour increment in TRL apoB-100 in the SFA diet group. Similarly, the 3-hour increment in TRL apoB-48 was correlated with that of apoB-100 in the PUFA group but not in the SFA group. The postprandial increment in TRL apoB-100 at 3 hours was correlated with that of TRL cholesterol and apoE, but in the SFA diet group these relationships were stronger for the 6-hour increment from baseline. Overall, correlations were stronger in the SFA diet group possibly because there was a limited representation of higher lipid and apolipoprotein values in the PUFA diet group.
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Discussion |
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In the present experiments and consistent with previous data,23 24 we found that postabsorptive concentrations of plasma and TRL triglycerides were 30% and 40%, respectively, lower in young men consuming a diet rich in PUFA than in men consuming a diet rich in SFA. This triglyceride-lowering effect in the PUFA diet group was accompanied by reduced concentrations of TRL apoB-48, apoB-100, apoE, and cholesterol. The postabsorptive concentration of triglycerides in plasma is an important determinant of the magnitude and duration of the postprandial triglyceride response.25 Therefore, the postprandial response would be expected to be greater in men consuming the diet rich in SFA, as reported by Weintraub et al4 in men given 50 g of fat per square meter of body surface. To the contrary, we found a comparable absolute increase and a significantly greater percent increase in TRL triglycerides at 3 hours in men consuming the PUFA-rich diet and challenge meal. This increased triglyceride response was not significantly related to the postabsorptive concentration of triglycerides (r2=0.34, P=.11) and appeared to be a function of the fatty acid composition of the challenge meal. Thus, as with the PUFA diet group, the percent increase in TRL triglycerides was also greater in the SFA diet group consuming the PUFA meal than in those consuming the SFA meal. This greater response may reflect a more rapid absorption of PUFA. In rats, more rapid esterification of linoleate in the intestinal mucosa has been shown to result in a faster absorption of this fatty acid, relative to palmitate.26 Whether such results apply to humans consuming whole foods, as opposed to meals containing individual fatty acids, is unclear. Regardless of the mechanism, the greater response to the PUFA meal did not affect the rate of return of TRL triglycerides to postabsorptive values that occurred at 6 hours after both meals.
The concentration of TRL apoB-48 increased and peaked 3 hours after the meal and returned to postabsorptive values at 6 hours in both the SFA and PUFA diet groups consuming either an SFA- or PUFA-rich meal. The postprandial increase in TRL apoB-48 at 3 hours presumably reflects primarily the rate of absorption of dietary triglycerides, whereas the return to postabsorptive concentrations is mainly influenced by the rate of clearance of chylomicron remnants from the blood. As with TRL triglycerides, the percent increase in TRL apoB-48 was greater after the PUFA-rich meal than after the SFA-rich meal, but this greater increment did not affect the return to postabsorptive values that occurred at 6 hours in all cases. Taken together, our data suggest that neither the fatty acid composition of the background diet nor that of the challenge meal materially affected the clearance of chylomicron remnant particles postprandially.
Individuals consuming the diet rich in SFA had higher average postprandial concentrations of TRL apoB-48 over 12 hours (0.29 mg/dL) than those consuming a diet rich in PUFA (0.19 mg/dL; P=.08). This is in agreement with the conclusions of Weintraub and associates.4 They found higher concentrations of retinyl esters in postprandial Sf>1000 chylomicron and Sf<1000 chylomicron remnant particles and concluded that SFA increase the concentration of postprandial TRL relative to PUFA. The postprandial pattern of increase and return to postabsorptive values of retinyl esters in Sf<1000, however, was found to be the same as the postprandial pattern in Sf>1000 in both the SFA and PUFA diet groups, from which they concluded that dietary fat saturation does not significantly affect chylomicron remnant clearance. However, chylomicron triglycerides are normally hydrolyzed by lipoprotein lipase within 5 to 10 minutes,27 whereas the removal of chylomicron remnants is saturated for 6 to 7 hours after ingestion of 70 g of cream fat in healthy individuals.28 Therefore, we have considered all particles containing apoB-48 postprandially to be chylomicron remnants. Our findings of higher average concentrations of apoB-48 in the SFA diet group than in the PUFA diet group are also consistent with those of Demacker and associates,5 who found that the 24-hour area under the curve for TRL apoB-48 was 43% higher in their SFA diet group than in their PUFA diet group. However, we found a 40% higher postabsorptive concentration of apoB-48 in subjects consuming the SFA diet, whereas Demacker et al found the postabsorptive concentration of apoB-48 to be similar in both diet groups. Consequently, the apparent concentration of apoB-48 during the rest of the day and night was higher in their SFA diet group, and they concluded that the clearance of chylomicrons was accelerated by a PUFA-rich diet. The basis for the discrepancy with our findings for TRL apoB-48 in the postabsorptive state is unclear but could in part be methodological. Whereas we used a slab gel electrophoretic method that permits accurate quantification of apolipoproteins in TRL samples containing very small amounts of protein, Demacker and associates used a tube gel electrophoretic method to measure the dye absorbance of apoB-48; the validity of this method has recently been questioned.18 Accurate measurement of apoB-48 is particularly critical in the postabsorptive state, during which apoB-48 constitutes only 2% to 5% of the total apoB mass in TRL.18
Although feeding a diet rich in SFA did not affect the postprandial response of apoB-48, it significantly increased the postprandial response of apoB-100, the structural component of hepatogenous TRL. As with apoB-48, the postabsorptive concentration of TRL apoB-100 was 34% higher in individuals consuming a diet rich in SFA (P=.14), and they also accumulated more apoB-100 in TRL postprandially. TRL apoB-100 increased 1.4-fold 3 hours after the meal and returned to postabsorptive values at 6 hours in the PUFA diet group but only at 9 hours in the SFA diet group. The 3-hour postprandial increase in TRL apoB-100 observed here, which is in agreement with earlier reports,6 22 29 has been attributed to preferential hydrolysis of chylomicron remnants by lipoprotein lipase.22 25 29 This is consistent with our finding in the PUFA diet group that the 3-hour increment in TRL apoB-100 was correlated with that of TRL apoB-48, indicating that the accumulation of hepatogenous TRL in this group was closely coupled to that of chylomicron remnants.
The absence of a correlation between the 3-hour increment in TRL apoB-100 and apoB-48 in the SFA diet group suggests that other mechanisms may contribute to the SFA-induced accumulation of hepatogenous TRL 3 and 6 hours after the meal. In individuals fed a diet rich in SFA, the postabsorptive concentration of plasma and LDL cholesterol increased significantly on day 8 and remained higher than baseline (day 1) for the rest of the study. The hypercholesterolemic effect of a high-cholesterol diet rich in SFA has been extensively documented1 8 30 and has been attributed to suppression of LDL receptors,31 which reduces the clearance of VLDL remnants as well as LDL.32 That postprandial chylomicron remnant clearance was apparently unaffected by SFA feeding presumably reflects the participation of other receptors in the hepatic uptake of chylomicron remnants,33 particularly when the LDL receptor is downregulated.34 Indeed, whereas the processing of most VLDL particles involves mainly interaction of these particles with the LDL receptor, the processing of large VLDL as well as postprandial chylomicrons involves other receptors.34 35 The removal by hepatic receptors of the small chylomicron remnants produced in the postabsorptive state may be more dependent on the LDL receptor than large chylomicron remnants produced after fat ingestion.
The fatty acid composition of the challenge meal did not alter the postprandial response of TRL apoB-100. In both the SFA and PUFA diet groups, individuals given a PUFA challenge meal tended to have a higher percent increase in TRL apoB-100 at 3 hours, but regardless of the composition of the challenge meal individuals fed a diet rich in SFA accumulated hepatogenous TRL at 6 hours, whereas those fed a PUFA diet did not. The prolonged postprandial accumulation of hepatogenous TRL thus appears to be affected primarily by the composition of the background diet.
As evidenced by the significant correlations between the 3-hour
increment in TRL triglycerides and apoB-48, the
postprandial pattern for TRL triglycerides was remarkably
parallel to that of apoB-48 in both diet groups. We found that 70% of
the increase in total TRL triglycerides 3 hours after the
challenge meal was contained in a TRL fraction that contained all of
the apoB-48 but less than 15% of the apoB-100. At the same time, TRL
particles containing apoB-100 accounted for 70% of the increment in
TRL particle number. Similar observations have recently been reported
by Schneeman et al22 and Cohn et al,6 who
found that 50% to 80% of the increase in TRL
triglycerides at 3 hours is associated with particles
containing apoB-48. The 30% contribution of the TRL fraction that
contained only apoB-100 to the increase in total TRL
triglycerides at 3 hours was also significant and
consistent with concomitant changes in other components within
this fraction (Fig 7).
The unbound fraction containing apoB-48 also accounted for most of the increment in TRL cholesterol at 3 hours. The concomitant decrease in these components in LDL and HDL suggests that unbound TRL acquired cholesterol from higher-density lipoproteins.36 37 An increase in cholesterol in apoB-48 particles has also been reported by Cohn et al6 but not by Schneeman et al,22 who found that more than 90% of the increase in TRL cholesterol was associated with the bulk of TRL apoB-100. Although unbound TRL accounted for most of the 3-hour increment in triglycerides and cholesterol, as well as apoE, these components had returned to near postabsorptive values 6 hours after the meal.
Whereas the early postprandial changes in total TRL triglycerides, cholesterol, and apoE were closely coupled to that of apoB-48, the later changes in TRL cholesterol and apoE were more closely related to that of TRL apoB-100, particularly in individuals fed the SFA diet. In this group, the 6-hour increment in total TRL apoB-100 was highly correlated with that of total TRL cholesterol and apoE. Likewise, in the bound TRL fraction that lacked apoB-48, increments in cholesterol, triglycerides, and apoE at 6 hours were comparable to that of apoB-100. Because the postprandial accumulation of apoB-100 is prolonged in individuals consuming a diet rich in SFA, the increase in the diurnal concentration of apoB-100 associated with that diet is more pronounced than the increase in the postabsorptive concentration. Indeed, over the 12-hour postprandial period studied, the average concentration of apoB-100 was 57% higher in individuals consuming a diet rich in SFA than in those consuming a diet rich in PUFA.
As reported by others,38 39 40 41 the concentration of free and esterified cholesterol in plasma and their distribution among lipoproteins was altered in the postprandial state. These changes were unrelated to the composition of the diet or challenge meal. The postprandial changes in plasma were most pronounced for esterified cholesterol, which fell significantly at 3 hours, reflecting primarily a reduction in LDL and, to a lesser extent, HDL esterified cholesterol. Concurrently, esterified cholesterol increased significantly in TRL and accounted for half of the increase in TRL total cholesterol at 3 hours. These changes may reflect an augmented transfer of esterified cholesterol from higher-density lipoproteins to TRL postprandially.36 37 The rise in plasma and LDL esterified cholesterol above postabsorptive values observed at 12 hours may reflect downregulation of LDL receptors consequent to uptake of TRL cholesterol by the liver.
Postprandial changes in free cholesterol were similar to those of esterified cholesterol but were less pronounced. These changes presumably reflect passive exchange between lipoproteins and may reflect the increased lipoprotein surface area in TRL postprandially. Dubois and associates,40 41 who systematically studied the distribution of free and esterified cholesterol among lipoproteins in young men given challenge meals with varying amounts of fat and cholesterol, also reported a significant and transitory reduction of esterified cholesterol in serum, LDL, and to a lesser extent HDL after a test meal containing 42 g of fat40 41 and 280 mg cholesterol.41 In contrast with our findings, however, they found a significant increment in free cholesterol in serum at 3 hours that was reflected primarily in LDL but also in HDL. The reason for this discrepancy is unclear.
In summary, we have found no evidence that the relative amounts of SFA and omega-6 PUFA in the diet or a challenge meal affect the clearance of chylomicron remnants postprandially in healthy young men. In contrast, the postprandial accumulation of hepatogenous TRL is more pronounced in individuals fed a diet rich in SFA relative to those fed a diet rich in PUFA. The increased concentration of hepatogenous TRL is affected primarily by the fatty acid composition of the background diet but not by that of a single challenge meal. Given the potential atherogenicity of TRL remnants2 42 and the prolonged elevation of hepatogenous TRL that we observed in normolipidemic young men consuming ordinary meals containing amounts of fat typically consumed by Americans, it will be important to determine how dietary fat saturation affects postprandial lipemia in more diverse population groups, including men and women of different ages, as well as individuals with abnormalities in lipoprotein metabolism.
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Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms |
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (HL-14237) and a General Clinical Research Center grant MO1 RR00079-33. N. Bergeron was the recipient of research fellowships from the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, Québec Affiliate (HSFC-R5); the Fonds pour la Formation de Chercheurs et l'Aide à la Recherche, Québec (B3-001); and the Fonds de la Recherche en Santé du Québec (PR-5), Québec. We gratefully acknowledge the expert assistance of K. Todd in the formulation of the research diets. We also thank P. Frost for help in evaluation of subjects, M. Schloetter for help in recruitment and nutritional assessment, V. Weinberg for valuable statistical advice, and the clinical nursing staff of the General Clinical Research Center for their assistance throughout the study.
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Footnotes |
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Reprint requests to Richard J. Havel, Cardiovascular Research Institute and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0130.
Received July 14, 1995; accepted September 20, 1995.
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References |
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